Editing Yeoman (section)

== Medieval meanings ==
<!-- CAUTION: please do not make edits without reading the ENTIRE article; This section contains needed background -->
{{anchor|Hist Mean}}
[[File:1658 New World of Words - Yeoman Entry.png|thumb|Page containing the entry for Yeoman in Phillips' 1658 edition of ''New World of English Words''. This is probably the first appearance of a dictionary definition for Yeoman.]]
In the [[history of the English language]], the earliest recorded usage of yeoman occurs in the [[Late Middle English]] period, and then becoming more widespread in the [[Early Modern English]] period. The [[Early Modern English#Transition from Middle English|transition from Middle English to Early Modern English]] was a gradual process occurring over decades. For the sake of assigning a historical date, OED defines the end of Middle English and the beginning of Early Modern English as occurring in 1500.<ref name="OEDblog_ME_overview"/><ref name="OEDblog_EME_overview"/> The year 1500 marks the end of nearly 200 years of political and economic upheaval in England. The [[Hundred Years War]], the recurring episodes of the [[Black Death]], and over 32 years of civil war known as the [[War of the Roses]] all contributed to the end of the [[Middle Ages in England]], and the beginning of the [[English Renaissance]]. It was during this time that English gradually replaced Norman French as the official language.

The first single-language dictionary of the English language, [[Robert Cawdrey]]'s ''[[Table Alphabeticall]]'', was published in 1604. The dictionary only included unusual English words, and loan words from foreign languages such as Hebrew, Greek, Latin, or French. Yeoman is not included in this dictionary. This suggests that in 1604, yeoman was a very commonly-used English word.
A more comprehensive, or general dictionary, was published in 1658. [[Edward Phillips]]' ''[[The New World of English Words]]'' contained basic definitions.<ref name="1658_PhillipsIA"/> Yeoman is included; probably for the first time in an English language dictionary. But only a legal definition was given:  (1) a social class immediately below a Gentleman; and (2) a freeborn man who can sell "his own free land in yearly revenue to the summe of 40 shillings Sterling".<ref name="1658_PhillipsUM"/> The fact that only the legal definition (introduced in the [[Electors of Knights of the Shires Act 1429]]) was given is another suggestion that yeoman was a common word at the time.

Between the 12th century ''Pseudo-Cnut de Foresta'' and ''The New World of English Words'' in 1658, linguists have had to re-construct the meanings of yeoman from the surviving manuscripts. The various meanings of yeoman were apparently widely understood by the document author and his audience, and were not explained in the manuscripts. Linguists have deduced these specific historical meanings based on the context in which yeoman was used within the document itself.<ref name="1911_Britannica_YeomanIA"/><ref name="Note1Ref"/> It is these meanings which are described in the following sections.

=== Household attendant or servant (14th century-present)<span class="anchor" id="Yeo Serv"></span> ===
{{Main|Yeoman (household servant)}}
Yeoman, as a household servant, is one of the earliest documented uses of the word. During the 14th century, it referred to a servant or attendant in a [[Medieval household|royal or noble household]], usually one who was of higher rank in the [[Social stratification#Definition and usage|household hierarchy]]. This hierarchy reflected the [[Feudalism in England|feudal society]] in which they lived. Everyone who served a royal or noble household knew their duties, and knew their place.{{r|1999_Woolgar|p=8}} This was especially important when the household staff consisted of both nobles and commoners. There were actually two household hierarchies which existed in parallel. One was the organization based upon the function ([[Duty#Duties of employment|duty]]) being performed. The other was based upon whether the person performing the duty was a noble or a commoner.{{r|1999_Woolgar|p=8}}

[[File:Horham Hall blueprint.png|thumb|Floor plan of Horsham Hall (built early 16th century) showing the locations of the kitchen, [[Buttery (room)|buttery]], and [[pantry]] relative to the [[Great hall]]]]
Similar household duties were grouped into [[Medieval household#Composition|Household Offices]], which were then assigned to one of several Chief Officers. In each Household Office, the servants were organized into a hierarchy, arranged in ranks according to the level of responsibility.{{r|1999_Woolgar|p=8}}
; [[Sergeant#History|Sergeant]]
: The highest rank, which reported directly to the Chief Officer and oversaw an individual Household Office.{{r|1999_Woolgar|p=31}} The word was introduced to England by the Normans, and meant an attendant or servant.<ref name="1914_OED_SergeantIA"/>
; Yeoman
: The middle rank of the Household Office.
; Groom
: The lowest rank of the Household Office. It generally referred to a menial position for a free-born commoner.<ref name="1901_OED_GroomIA"/>
The Chief Officers were nobles, but the servant ranks of Sergeant, Yeoman, and Groom
could be filled by either commoners or members of noble families. Any household duties which required close contact with the lord's immediate family, or their rooms, were handled by nobles.
For example, the [[Steward (office)|Steward]] oversaw the Offices concerned with household management. Procurement, storage, and preparation of food, waiting at table, and tending to the kitchen gardens, were some of the duties for which the Steward was responsible. Under the Steward during the reign of King Edward III, there were two separate groups of yeomen: ''Yeomen of the King's Chamber'' and ''Yeomen of the Offices''. The first group were members of noble families who waited only on the King, and the second group were commoners who performed similar duties for other household residents and guests in the Great Hall, kitchen, pantry, and other areas.

=== Yeoman service ===
{{anchor|Yeo Serv}}
Yeoman service (also yeoman's service) is an [[idiom]] which means "good, efficient, and useful service" in some cause.<ref name="1928_OED_YeomanIA"/> It has the [[connotations]] of the work performed by a faithful servant of the lower ranks, who does whatever it takes to get the job done.<ref name="1928_OED_YeomanIA"/>

<!-- change ref to Rochester_Gest_text for consistency; add line nbr -->
The sense – although not the use – of the idiom can be found in the ''[[Gest of Robyn Hode]]'', dated to about 1500. In the ''First Fitte'' (the first section of the ballad),<ref name="Lexico_fit"/> Robin gives money to a poor knight to pay his debt to the abbot of St Mary's Abbey. Noticing that the knight was traveling alone, Robin offers him the service of Little John as a yeoman:<ref name="Harvard_Robin"/>
{{Quote box |border=2px |width=45% |align=center
|quote=<poem>
"I shall thee lend Little John, my man,
For he shall be thy knave;
In a yeoman's stead he may thee stand,
If thou great need have."
</poem>
}}
Here Robin vouches<ref name="Lexico_to vouch"/> for Little John as a yeoman, a faithful servant who will perform whatever duties are required in times of great need.

The phrase ''yeoman's service'' is used by [[William Shakespeare]] in ''[[Hamlet]]'' (published in 1601). In act V, scene 2, [[Prince Hamlet]] tells [[Horatio (Hamlet)|Horatio]] how he discovered the king's plot against himself in a commission (document). Hamlet then says he has substituted for the original a commission which he himself wrote:<ref name="FolgerShakes_Hamlet_A5-S2"/>
{{Quote box |border=2px |width=45% |align=center |source=''Hamlet'', V, 2 |salign=right
|quote=<poem>
"... I sat me down,
Devised a new commission, wrote it fair—
I once did hold it, as our statists do,
A baseness to write fair, and labored much
How to forget that learning; but, sir, now
It did me yeoman's service."
</poem>
}}
Hamlet remarks that he "wrote it fair", that is, in elegant, gentlemanly prose; a style of writing which he tried very hard to forget. But in composing the fake commission, Hamlet had to resort to "that learning". He tells Horatio that "it did me yeoman's service", that is, his learning stood him in good stead. ''Standing one in good stead'' is another idiom very similar in meaning to yeoman service.<ref name="Lexico_stand_in_good_stead"/> Note that it was used in the third line of Stanza of the ''Gest of Robyn Hode'' quoted in the paragraph above.

=== Attendant or assistant to an official (ca 14th–17th centuries) ===
{{anchor|Marshalsea}}
{{Main|Marshalsea Court}}
{{See also|Earl Marshal}}
Marshalsea Court was a court of the English royal household, presided over by the Steward and the [[Knight Marshal|Knight-Marshal]]. The court kept records from about 1276 until 1611. Unfortunately, only a few survive from the years 1316–59.<ref name=TNA_Marshalsea/> Some information on the yeomen of the Marshalsea Court can be found in the Household Ordinance of King Edward IV from about 1483.{{r|1790_HousOrdE4IA|p=1}} The author of the Ordinance, looking back to the earlier household ordinances of King Edward III wrote: "Our sovereign lord's household is now discharged ... of the Court of Marshalsea, and all his clerks and yeomen."{{r|1790_HousOrdE4IA|p=19}} The writer was referring to the transfer of the Marshalsea Court from the royal household.

The Ordinance describe the duties of the Steward of the Household, who was also the Steward of the Court of Marshalsea. The Steward was assigned one chaplain, two squires, and four yeomen as his personal retinue. One yeoman was specifically attached to the Steward's rooms at the Court of Marshalsea "to keep his chamber and stuff". When the Steward was present in Court, he was entitled to a 10-person retinue. Besides the Steward and the Knight-Marshal, two other members of the royal household were empowered to preside: the Treasurer and the Controller. Of the Steward, Treasurer, and the Controller, at least one of them must preside in the Court every day.{{r|1790_HousOrdE4IA|p=56}}

=== A chivalric rank ===
{{anchor|Chiv Rank}}
{{Main|Chivalry#Late Middle Ages}}
[[File:Edith of Wilton.jpg|thumb|Edith of Wilton, from a 13th-century illuminated manuscript]]
One of the earliest documents which contains yeoman as a chivalric rank is the ''Chronicon Vilodunense'' (''Life of [[Saint Edith of Wilton|Saint Edith]]''). Originally written in Latin by [[Goscelin]] sometime in the 11th century, it was later translated into the Wiltshire dialect of Middle English about 1420. Part of the manuscript relates a story about the [[archbishop of York]] caught in a storm at sea while on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He prayed to Saint Edith for the storm to subside, and suddenly he saw Saint Edith standing beside him. The Blessed Virgin had sent her, she said, to assure the archbishop he would arrive home safe and sound. Miraculously, the storm stopped. The archbishop kept his vow, and visited St Edith's tomb at [[Wilton Abbey]]. There he preached a sermon about the miracle to each man there: knight, squire, yeoman, and page.{{r|Chron_VilodIA|p=lines 4531-58}}

Although Wilton Abbey was a Benedictine [[nunnery]], it held its lands from the king by [[knight service]]. The [[Abbess]]' knights were her tenants, who in turn held land from the [[Abbey]] by knight service. Usually the abbess fulfilled her duty to the king by [[scutage]]. But she had knights with [[Henry III of England|King Henry III]] on his 1223 Welsh campaign, and at the Siege of [[Bedford Castle]] the following year. Between 1277 and 1327 she offered knight service at least four times.<ref name=BHO_Wilton_Abbey/>

About 50 years later in 1470, another reference to yeomen is made in the [[Warkworth's Chronicle|Warkworth Chronicle]]. The scene is King Edward IV's coronation, and the chronicler lists the nobles who received titles from His Majesty. At the end of the list he notes: "And other gentlemen and yeomen he made knights and squires, as they had deserved."{{r|Wark_ChronIA|p=36}} (modern spelling) The chronicler makes no further mention of these men.

=== Yeomanry (14th–15th centuries) ===
{{anchor|Yeomanry}}
An early historical meaning that seems to have disappeared before our modern era is "something pertaining to or characteristic of a yeoman", such as the speech or the dress.<ref name="1928_OED_YeomanIA"/> Perhaps the best way of illustrating this meaning is to quote briefly from one of the earliest Middle English ballads. ''[[Robin Hood and the Potter]]'' survives as a manuscript dated from about 1500.<ref name=Rochester_RH_Potter_Intro/> Robin demands a one penny toll of the Potter, for which the traveler could then proceed unharmed by the outlaw. The Potter refuses to pay. A scuffle ensues, in which the Potter overcomes Robin. The Potter then wants to know whom he has beaten. After hearing Robin's name, the Potter responds (modern translation from glossary notes):{{r|"Rochester_RH_Potter"|at=lines 85–89}}
{{Quote box |border=2px |width=45% |align=center
|quote=<poem>
"It is full little courtesy," said the potter.
"As I have heard wise men say,
If'n a poor yeoman come driving over the way,
To hold him on his journey."

"By my troth, thou says truth", said Robin.
"Thou says good yeomanry;
And though thou go forth every day,
Thou shalt not be held by me."
</poem>
}}
In the first stanza the Potter describes himself as a poor yeoman, whom people say Robin Hood would never stop or waylay (also known as a holdup). It is obvious from the story that the Potter was not dressed in a yeomanly manner, otherwise Robin would have never accosted him. It was not until Robin heard the Potter speak that he recognizes him as a yeoman. Whether he was referring to his direct straightforward manner, or his dialect, or both, is unclear to a 21st-century reader. But it is apparent that the original 15th century audiences knew exactly what ''good yeomanry'' was.

=== Yeoman archer (14th–15th centuries)<span class="anchor" id="Yeo Arch"></span> ===
{{Main|Yeoman Archer}}
[[File:Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg|thumb|Battle of Crécy, as depicted in a 15th-century illuminated manuscript of [[Froissart's Chronicles|Jean Froissart's Chronicles]]. Both armies are shown stylistically; archers in the foreground. English archers are shown with the legendary longbow, while the Italian mercenaries struggle with their [[crossbows]].]]
The Yeoman Archer is a term applied specifically to English and Welsh military longbow archers (either mounted or on foot) of the 14th–15th centuries. Yeoman archers were commoners; free-born members of the social classes below the [[nobility]] and [[gentry]]. They were a product of the [[Feudalism in England|English form of feudalism]] in which the military duty of a knight to his lord (which was implicit in [[Land tenure|tenure]] feudalism) was replaced by paid, short-term service.

The Yeoman Archers were the English Army's response to a chronic manpower problem when trying to field an army on the European continent during the 14th century. Against 27,000 French knights, England could only muster at most 5,000 [[men-at-arms]].{{r|2015_Taliaferro|p=39}} With this 5:1 tactical disadvantage, the English needed a strategic advantage.

When [[Conquest of Wales by Edward I of England#Campaign of 1282–83|Edward I invaded Wales in 1282]], he quickly realized the battlefield importance of the opposing Welsh archers. Firing from ambush, they inflicted serious casualties on Edward's army. When [[English invasion of Scotland (1298)#Invasion|Edward invaded Scotland for the second time in 1298]], his army consisted mostly of infantry (12,500 of 15,000 men).<ref name=UK_Battlefields_Falkirk>{{cite web |url=http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/medieval/battleview.asp?BattleFieldId=62 |title=Battle of Falkirk I |date=2020 |website=UK Battlefields Resource Centre |publisher=The Battlefield Trust |access-date=9 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029190536/http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/medieval/battleview.asp?BattleFieldId=62 |archive-date=29 October 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> His infantry included about 10,500–10,900 Welshmen.{{r|Welsh_Soldier|p=27-9}} 2,000 men, including archers, were raised as part of the Lancashire and [[Cheshire archers|Cheshire levies]] under the [[Commission of Array]].{{r|Welsh_Soldier|p=27-9}} At the [[Battle of Falkirk#Background|Battle of Falkirk]], the English army archers opened up the Scottish [[schiltrons#Circular schiltrons|schiltrons]] with hails of arrows. The Scottish infantrymen fled the battlefield, to be pursued and killed by the English cavalry.<ref name=UK_Battlefields_Falkirk_pdf>
{{cite web |url=http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/media/601.pdf |title=Falkirk I |date=2020 |website=UK Battlefields Resource Centre |publisher=The Battlefield Trust |access-date=9 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722084526/http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/media/601.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1333, his grandson, Edward III, undertook his first invasion of Scotland, which culminated with the [[Battle of Halidon Hill]].<ref name=Battlefields_Brit_Halidon>{{cite web |url=http://www.battlefieldsofbritain.co.uk/battle_halidon_hill_1333.html |title=Battle of Halidon Hill (1333) |date=2019 |website=Battlefields of Britain |publisher=CastlesFortsBattles.co.uk |access-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101004102/http://www.battlefieldsofbritain.co.uk/battle_halidon_hill_1333.html |archive-date=1 November 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Battlefields_Trust_Halidon>{{cite web |url=http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/medieval/battleview.asp?BattleFieldId=16 |title=Battle of Halidon Hill |date=2020 |website=UK Battlefields Resource Centre |publisher=The Battlefields Trust |access-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101080442/http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/medieval/battleview.asp?BattleFieldId=16 |archive-date=1 November 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Halidon Hill is where the 20-year old Edward III learned how to combine archers and dismounted men-at-arms – tactics that he would employ during his [[Crécy campaign]] in France.<ref name=HistoricEngland_Halidon>{{cite web |url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1000012 |title=The Site of The Battle of Halidon Hill 1333 |date=2020 |website=Historic England |access-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208201151/https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1000012 |archive-date=8 December 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The English victory at the [[Battle of Crécy]] was followed by another victory at the [[Battle of Poitiers]], and a final victory at the [[Siege of Calais (1348)|Siege of Calais]]. After the [[Battle of Agincourt]], the Yeoman Archer had become as legendary as his bow. By negating the tactical advantage of large numbers of [[cavalry]] (mounted knights and men-at-arms) with their ability to rapidly fire volleys of arrows, Yeoman Archers are considered part of the [[Infantry revolution]] of the 14th century. They could be deployed as "Archers on horse" (mounted archers who could reach the scene quickly, dismount, & set up a firing line) or as "Archers on foot" (foot archers who followed as reinforcements).{{r|2015_Taliaferro|p=45}}

===Yeoman of the Guard (15th century-present)===
{{anchor|Yeo Guard}}
{{Main|Yeoman of the Guard}}
{{See also|Battle of Bosworth Field}}
[[File:Yeomen of the Guard.JPG|thumb|Yeomen of the Guard in procession. Their uniform has remained relatively unchanged since the Tudor dynasty. The spears are carried in remembrance of their role in protecting Henry Tudor at Bosworth Field.]]
On 22 August 1485, near the small village of Stoke Golding, [[Henry VII of England#Rise to the throne|Henry Tudor]] met [[King Richard III]] in battle for the Crown of England. The [[War of the Roses]] had persisted intermittently for more than 30 years between the rival claimants of the [[House of York]] (white rose) and the [[House of Lancaster]] (red rose). In 1483, Richard, of the House of York, had deposed his young nephew, 12-year old [[Edward V]]. Henry Tudor, of the House of Lancaster, was the favored candidate to replace Richard.<ref name=HistoricEngland_bosworth/>

Three armies met that day on Bosworth Field: Richard, with his supporters, [[John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk|Duke of Norfolk]] and the [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]]; Henry, with his troops under command of the veteran [[John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford|John de Vere]], Earl of Oxford; and the troops of [[Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby#The Battle of Bosworth|Thomas, Lord Stanley]]. Stanley was a powerful lord in northwest England. But he was stepfather of Henry Tudor, and Richard was holding his son hostage. Stanley's forces remained uncommitted as the battle raged. As Oxford advanced, the troops appeared to leave Henry, his bodyguards, and some French mercenaries isolated. Or so it appeared to Richard. Sensing an opportunity, Richard charged toward Henry. Seeing this, Stanley made his decision, and charged to reinforce Henry. Henry's bodyguards fought bravely to hold off Richard's bodyguards until the arrival of Stanley's troops. During the [[melee]], Richard's horse became mired in the marsh, and he was killed. Henry had won.<ref name=HistoricEngland_bosworth/>

Henry rewarded his bodyguards by formal establishing the ''Yeomen of the Guard of (the body of) our Lord the King''. The King of England always had bodyguards (''Yeoman of the Crown''). This royal act recognized their bravery and loyalty in doing their duty, and designated them as the first members of a bodyguard to protect the King (or Queen) of England forever. In their first official act on 1 October 1485, fifty members of the Yeoman of the Guard, led by John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, formally escorted Henry Tudor to his coronation ceremony.{{r|"1911_Britannica_YeomanGuardIA"|p=916}}

=== Yeoman Warder (16th century-present) ===
{{anchor|Yeo Warder}}
{{Main|Yeoman Warders}}
{{see also|Tower of London#Changing use}}
The Tower of London was used as permanent royal residence until 1509–10, during the reign of [[King Henry VIII]]. Henry ordered 12 [[#Yeo Guard|Yeoman of the Guard]] to remain as a garrison, indicating that the Tower was still a royal palace. When the Tower no longer served that function, the garrison became warders, and were not permitted to wear the Yeoman of the Guard uniform. During the reign of Henry's son, [[Edward VI]], the warders were given back the uniform. This was done as a result of petition from the former [[Lord Protector|Lord Protector of the Realm]], [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]]. Seymour, who was Edward's uncle, had been confined there, and found the warders to be most considerate.{{r|"1911_Britannica_YeomanGuardIA"|p=917}}

=== English Navy yeoman (to 1485) ===
<!-- Parts of this section should be moved to a new article on the English (NOT Royal) Navy -->
{{anchor|RN Yeo}}
{{See also|History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)#House of Plantagenet (1216-1399)|Royal Navy#Earlier Fleets}}
The earliest documented use of yeoman relative to a navy is found in the [[Prologue and Tale of Beryn|''Merchant's Tale of Beryn'']]: "Why gone the yeomen to boat – Anchors to haul?"{{r|Rochester_Beryn|p=line 1995}} The context of the quotation sheds no further light on either yeomen or boats. What is important is the date of the manuscript: between 1450 and 1470.<ref name=Rochester_Beryn_Intro/> This places the ''Merchant's Tale of Beryn'' about the same time as the ''[[Robin Hood and the Monk]]'' manuscript, and shortly before the end of the Hundred Years War. <!-- Therefore, this meaning of yeoman occurs very early in Middle English.--> To understand the connections between yeoman and the early English navy, it is necessary to examine King Edward III's reign and the beginning of the Hundred Years War.

England did not have a standing navy until the [[Tudor Navy]] of [[King Henry VIII]]. Before then, the "King's Ships" were a very small fleet allocated for the King's personal use. During the Hundred Years War, King Edward III actually owned only a few ships. The rest were made available to the King through agreements with his nobles and the various port towns of England. About 25 ships of various sizes were made available to Edward III every year.{{r|2011_Cushway|p=20-21}} They ranged from the small [[Thames sailing barge]]s (descended from the famous Norman [[longship]]s of the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]{{r|2011_Cushway|p=26-7}}) which shuttled the royal retinue up and down the [[River Thames]], to large [[Cog (ship)|cogs]]. Cogs were large merchant ships, with high [[prow]]s and [[stern]]s, and a single mast with a single square sail. The largest cogs were built to carry sizable wine [[cask]]s. The [[Worshipful Company of Vintners|Vintners' Company]], in return for their monopoly on the wine trade, had to make their cogs available to the King on demand.{{r|2011_Cushway|p=23}}

The 1345 ''Household Ordinance of Edward III'' provides a brief summary of the Fleets organized for the [[Crécy campaign]]. The South Fleet (which included all English ports south and west of River Thames) consisted of 493 ships with 9,630 mariners. Of these, the ''King's Ships'' (25 ships with 419 mariners), the ports of Dartmouth (31 ships with 757 mariners), Plymouth (26 ships with 603 mariners), and London (25 ships with 602 mariners) were the largest contingents. The North Fleet (which included all English ports north of River Thames) consisted of 217 ships with 4521 mariners. The port of Yarmouth, with 43 ships with 1095 mariners, was the largest contingent.{{r|1790_HousOrdE3IA|p=6-8}} The definition of a mariner is unclear, as is the difference between a mariner and a sailor.{{r|1847_NicholasIA_v1|p=406}} The number of mariners given is about twice that needed to man a ship. Edward's warships carried two crews. The second crew was used for night sailing, for providing a crew for prize ships, and for providing more fighting men.{{r|2011_Cushway|p=85}}

[[File:Moulage Dunwich.jpg|thumb|left|Seal of the port of Dunwich. This is an earlier ship (note the side rudder) which has been retro-fitted with a forecastle, aftcastle, and topcastle. The forecastle and aftcastle platforms are tall enough so men can stand underneath them.]]
Early in the Hundred Years War, the largest existing merchant ships, such as the cog, were converted to warships with the addition of wooden castles. There were three types of castles: [[forecastle]] (at the prow), [[aftcastle]] (at the stern), and the topcastle (at the top of the mast). A record from 1335 tells of the vessel ''Trinity'' (200 tons) being converted for war.{{r|1847_NicholasIA_v2|p=169-70}} As new ships were built, the castles became integral with the ship's hull.{{r|2011_Cushway|p=26}}
[[File:Ubena_von_Bremen_Kiel2007_1_(cropped).jpg|thumb|right|The reconstruction ship ''[[Bremen cog|Ubena von Bremen]]''. Note that the aftcastle is part of the ship's hull.]]
As the King was impressing all the big ships and their crews for the war effort, the mayors and merchants of the port towns were [[retrofitting]] old ships and building new ones for harbor defense, and patrols to protect coastal ships and fishing boats from enemy ships and pirates.{{r|2011_Cushway|p=84}}

By this time (mid-14th century), the Captain of the ship was a separate military rank.{{r|1847_NicholasIA_v1|p=400-01}} He was responsible for the defense of the ship. For every 4 mariners aboard the warship, there was 1 man-at-arms and 1 archer who was stationed in the castles. For a vessel the size of the ''Trinity'', which carried about 130 mariners, there were at least 32 men-at-arms and 32 archers.{{r|1847_NicholasIA_v2|p=158}}
[[File:1847 Nicolas pg 365.png|thumb|left|14th century Northern Europe warship]]
These illuminations from a 14th-century manuscript provide some insight as to how the retrofitted castles were used in battle. The first illustration shows a 2-masted vessel, with a man-at-arms in the retrofitted aftcastle, and an archer in the retrofitted topcastle.
[[File:1847 Nicolas - pg 366.png|thumb|right|14th century Northern European warship battle scene]]
The next illustration shows a battle scene.{{r|1847_NicholasIA_v1|p=365-66}} The tactics included using grappling hooks to position the ships so that the archers on the aftcastles had clear shots into the opposing ship. After raking the deck with arrows, the men-at-arms would swing over to finish the job.

The warship Captain was also responsible for [[Convoy#Age of Sail|convoying]] 30 merchant vessels from English ports to the French shore. These vessels carried the troops, horses, food, forage, and whatever else was needed upon landing in France.{{r|2011_Cushway|p=85}}

The [[Sea captain|Master]] (or Master Mariner) was responsible for sailing the vessel. Under him were the Constables (equivalent to today's [[boatswain]]s). One constable oversaw twenty crewmen.{{r|1847_NicholasIA_v1|p=400-02}} Collecting a crew was traditionally the task of the Master. However, with the need for double-crews, the King authorized his Admirals to offer the King's pardon to outlaws and pirates. In 1342, the number of men who responded exceeded the demand. Edward's deputies never had trouble again raising the crews they needed.<ref name=1973_Kepler/> This is reminiscent of the [[#Rob Hood|pardons offered by Edward to outlaws of the Robin Hood ballads]]. Therefore, it is possible that the real answer to "Why gone the yeomen to boat – Anchors to haul?" was a pardon.

Instances of yeoman in a naval context are rare before 1700. In 1509, the [[Board of Ordnance#Origins of the Board|Office of Ordnance]] had a Master, Clerk, and Yeoman.<ref name=1992_Loades/> In 1608, a House of Lords manuscript mentions a ship's gunner and a yeoman.<ref name="1928_OED_YeomanIA"/> Then in 1669 appeared ''The Mariner's Magazine'', dedicated to the [[Society of Merchant Venturers|Society of Merchant-Adventurers of the City of Bristol]]. Among the various chapters on the use of mathematics in sea navigation and gunnery, the author suggests "He [the Gunner] must be careful in making Choice of a sober honest Man, for the Yeoman of the Powder."<ref name=1669_Sturmy/>(modern spelling) In 1702, actual titles of seamen appear in the ''[[London Gazette]]'': Yeomen of the Sheets, and Yeomen of the Powder Room.<ref name="1928_OED_YeomanIA"/>

=== Social stratum of small freeholders ===
<!-- This section requires a good bit of rework; probably will require a separate article. -->
This review of the yeoman freeholders is divided into three periods: (a) up to 1500; (b) between 1500 and 1600; and (c) between 1600 and 1800. This division corresponds roughly to the historical changes experienced by the freeholders themselves, as well as the shifting contemporary social hierarchies in which they lived. It is also influenced by the availability of sources for each period.

==== Up to 1500 ====
{{See also|Parliament of 1327|Estates of the realm|Feudalism in England|English society#Late medieval society|England in the Late Middle Ages|Hundred Years War|Black Death|Peasants' Revolt}}
<!-- explain here why the freeholders were a social stratum, not a social class; "class" is an anachronism (feudalism decayed slowly) -->
<!-- discussion of the decline of the Three Estates, the rising influence of commoners, as evidenced by establishment of the House of Commons, which included the Knights of the Shire (rural) & the Burgesses (urban) -->
<!-- incl case study: William of Wykeham -->
<!-- regional: Gloucestershire -->
The parliament of 1327 was a watershed event. For the first time since the [[Norman Conquest]], an English king was disposed peaceably, and not usurped by military means. Although [[Edward II]] had been previously threatened with deposition in 1310 and 1321, all those who attended the parliament of 1327 were aware of the constitutional crisis. The king was imprisoned by his [[Isabella of France|Queen Isabella]] and her paramour [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]] after their [[Invasion of England (1326)|invasion of England]]. The Parliament was a legal pretense to confer legitimacy upon their actions. The [[Lords Temporal]] and the [[Lords Spiritual]] were summoned in the King's name, while the [[Knights of the Shire]], [[Burgess (title)|Burgesses]] from the towns, and representatives from the [[Cinque Ports]] were elected to attend.<ref>(Note 13: Richardson and Sayles 1930 p 44–45)</ref> According to Michael Prestwich: "What was necessary was to ensure that every conceivable means of removing the King was adopted, and the procedures combined all possible precedents".{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} Hence, establishing the legitimacy of Edward III was paramount. But it was the Knights of the Shire and Burgesses (hereafter referred to as ''the commons'') who drove the proceedings, both before and after Edward III's coronation.<ref name=2009_Payling/> Beginning in 1327, the commons became a permanent part of parliament.

[[File:Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg|thumb|13th-century French depiction of the Three Estates: (1) those who pray (shown as a cleric); (2) those who fight (shown as a knight); and (3) those who work (shown as a peasant).]]
In the 14th century, the name commons did not have its modern meaning of ''common people''. It referred to ''the communities'', which was ''les Communs'' in [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman French]]. The word meant that those elected to the parliament were representatives of their communities, that is, the shires and the urban areas.<ref name="Commons as law makers"/> To distinguish between this early assembly from the later House of Commons, ''the commons'' is used herein.
The commons included the [[Proctor#England|proctors]] of the lesser [[Clergy#Christianity|clergy]] as members of the sessions. In 1333, the commons sat together in a single chamber for the first time. About this same time, the commons was evolving into its role of legislating taxation. The king preferred to include taxes on clerical income with the direct taxes on the [[laity]]. The church hierarchy (archbishops and bishops) considered that no secular authority had the right to enforce tax collection from clerical income in a secular court. Such cases, they thought, should be considered in an of law. In 1340, the bishops negotiated a settlement with the Crown, wherein disputes between the king and clergy over taxation would be heard in ecclesiastical courts at either Canterbury or York. Therefore, there was no longer a need for the proctors to attend the commons. This was an important milestone for the commons. It became a secular assembly, its deliberations unaffected by ecclesiastical concerns. In 1342, the commons reorganized itself as the House of Commons, deliberating separately from the king, nobles and higher clergy of noble status. Each county had two Knights of the Shire as representatives, except for Durham and Cheshire, which were [[county palatine]]s.

Initially, the Knights of the Shire were selected from among the [[Knight Bachelor|belted knights]].<ref name=2009_Payling/><ref name="Rise of Commons"/>
<!-- continue w/evolution of KoS: belted knights -> esquires -> yeomen of substance -->

[[Anthony Wagner|Sir Anthony Richard Wagner]], Garter Principal [[King of Arms]], wrote that "a Yeoman would not normally have less than 100 acres" (40 hectares) "and in social status is one step down from the [[Landed gentry]], but above, say, a [[husbandman]]".<ref>Wagner, Sir Anthony R., ''English Genealogy'', Oxford University Press, 1960, pp. 125–130.</ref> Often it was hard to distinguish minor landed gentry from the wealthier yeomen, and wealthier husbandmen from the poorer yeomen.

==== 1500–1600 ====
<!-- will incorporate the stabilization of the social stratum within which the Yeomen existed -->
<!-- incl case studies; eg Francis Drake; Chaucer's Franklin character -->
As some yeomen overlapped into the newly emerging gentry through wealth and marriage; others merged with the merchants and professions of the towns through education; some became local officials in the counties; and still others maintained their original identity as farmers.

Yeomen were often [[constable]]s of their [[parish]], and sometimes [[chief constable]]s of the district, [[shire]] or [[hundred (division)|hundred]]. Many yeomen held the positions of [[bailiff]]s for the [[High Sheriff]] or for the shire or hundred. Other civic duties would include [[churchwarden]], bridge warden, and other [[warden (disambiguation)|warden]] duties. It was also common for a yeoman to be an [[Supervisor|overseer]] for his parish. Yeomen, whether working for a lord, king, shire, knight, district or parish, served in localised or municipal police forces raised by or led by the [[landed gentry]]. Some of these roles, in particular those of constable and [[bailiff]], were carried down through families. Yeomen often filled ranging, roaming, surveying, and policing roles.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0XVn9ETkQIC&q=yeoman+franklins&pg=PA159|title=Medieval and Renaissance Drama in England|last1=Cerasano|first1=S.P.|last2=Hirschfeld|first2=Heather Anne|date=2006|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press|isbn=978-0838641194|page=159|language=en}}</ref> In districts remoter from landed gentry and [[burgess (title)|burgesses]], yeomen held more official power: this is attested in statutes of the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] (reigned 1509–1547), indicating yeomen along with knights and [[squire]]s as leaders for certain purposes.

=== Yeoman farmer ===
<!-- This section requires a good bit of rework; probably will require 2 separate articles. 1 for the English yeoman farmer & the English Agricultural revolution; 1 for the US yeoman farmer -->
[[File:Wisconsin state coat of arms (illustrated, 1876).jpg|thumb|Coat of arms of Wisconsin during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], with yeoman on the right]]

In the United States, yeomen were identified in the 18th and 19th centuries as non-slaveholding, small landowning, family farmers. In areas of the [[Southern United States]] where land was poor, like [[East Tennessee]],<ref>The difficulty yeoman farmers faced in this region was notorious enough that it inspired the lyrics "Corn don't grow at all on Rocky Top; dirt's too rocky by far" in [http://www.utk.edu/athletics/tn_songs.shtml Rocky Top] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090830214750/http://www.utk.edu/athletics/tn_songs.shtml |date=2009-08-30}}, now one of Tennessee's state songs.</ref> the landowning yeomen were typically [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence farmers]], but some managed to grow [[crop]]s for market. Whether they engaged in subsistence or [[commercial agriculture]], they controlled far more modest landholdings than those of the [[Planter (American South)|planters]], typically in the range of 50–200 acres. In the Northern United States, practically all the [[farm]]s were operated by yeoman farmers as [[family farms]].

[[Thomas Jefferson]] was a leading advocate of the yeomen, arguing that the independent farmers formed the basis of [[Republicanism in the United States|republican values]].<ref>Samuel C. Hyde Jr., "Plain Folk Yeomanry in the Antebellum South", in John Boles, Jr., ed., ''Companion to the American South,'' (2004) pp. 139–155</ref> Indeed, [[Jeffersonian Democracy]] as a political force was largely built around the yeomen.<ref>Steven Hahn, ''The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850–1890'' (1983)</ref> After the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865), organizations of farmers, especially the [[The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry|Grange]], formed to organize and enhance the status of the yeoman farmers.<ref>Thomas A. Woods, ''Knights of the Plow: Oliver H. Kelley and the Origins of the Grange in Republican Ideology'' (2002)</ref>