Editing X-ray (section)

===Advances in radiology===
[[File:Crookes tube xray experiment.jpg|thumb|Taking an X-ray image with early [[Crookes tube]] apparatus, late 1800s. The Crookes tube is visible in center. The standing man is viewing his hand with a [[fluoroscope]] screen. The seated man is taking a [[radiograph]] of his hand by placing it on a [[photographic plate]]. No precautions against radiation exposure are taken; its hazards were not known at the time.]]
[[File:Professor-Karl-Gustav-Lennander-in-1897-removing-a-pistol-bullet-from-the-occipital-lobe-of-the-brain-in-a-young-man-aft.jpg|thumb|upright|Surgical removal of a bullet whose location was diagnosed with X-rays (see inset) in 1897]]

Röntgen immediately noticed X-rays could have medical applications. Along with his 28 December Physical-Medical Society submission, he sent a letter to physicians he knew around Europe (1 January 1896).<ref name=Feldman1989>{{cite journal | vauthors = Feldman A | title = A sketch of the technical history of radiology from 1896 to 1920 | journal = Radiographics | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 1113–1128 | date = November 1989 | pmid = 2685937 | doi = 10.1148/radiographics.9.6.2685937 }}</ref> News (and the creation of "shadowgrams") spread rapidly with Scottish electrical engineer [[Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton]] being the first after Röntgen to create an X-ray photograph (of a hand). Through February, there were 46 experimenters taking up the technique in North America alone.<ref name=Feldman1989/>

The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by [[John Hall-Edwards]] in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate. On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards was also the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/xray |title=Major John Hall-Edwards |access-date=2012-05-17 |publisher=Birmingham City Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928204852/http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/xray |archive-date=28 September 2012 }}</ref>

[[File:James Green & James H. Gardiner - Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles - 1897 - Ycba f6c56349-13da-4efc-a671-e40af53b0823.jpg|thumb|Images by James Green, from "Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles" (1897), featuring (from left) ''Rana esculenta'' (now ''[[Pelophylax lessonae]]''), ''Lacerta vivipara'' (now ''[[Zootoca vivipara]]''), and ''[[Lacerta agilis]]'']]

In early 1896, several weeks after Röntgen's discovery, [[Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov]] irradiated frogs and insects with X-rays, concluding that the rays "not only photograph, but also affect the living function".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kudryashov |first1=Yurii Borisovich |title=Radiation Biophysics (ionizing Radiations) |date=2008 |publisher=Nova Publishers |isbn=978-1-60021-280-2 |page=xxi }}</ref> At around the same time, the zoological illustrator James Green began to use X-rays to examine fragile specimens. [[George Albert Boulenger]] first mentioned this work in a paper he delivered before the [[Zoological Society of London]] in May 1896. The book ''Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles'' (sciagraph is an obsolete name for an X-ray photograph), by Green and James H. Gardiner, with a foreword by Boulenger, was published in 1897.<ref Name="YCBA">{{Cite web |title=Green, James (Zoological Artist), Sciagraphs of British batrachians and reptiles, 1897 |url=https://collections.britishart.yale.edu/catalog/orbis:12428971 |publisher=Yale Centre for British Art |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles1 |journal=Nature |date=1 April 1897 |volume=55 |issue=1432 |pages=539–540 |doi=10.1038/055539a0 |bibcode=1897Natur..55..539. |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The first medical X-ray made in the United States was obtained using a discharge tube of [[Ivan Puluj]]'s design.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mayba |first1=Ihor I. |last2=Gaiua |first2=Roman |last3=Kyle |first3=Robert A. |last4=Shampo |first4=Marc A. |title=Ukrainian Physicist Contributes to the Discovery of X-Rays |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |date=July 1997 |volume=72 |issue=7 |pages=658 |doi=10.1016/S0025-6196(11)63573-8 |pmid=9212769 }}</ref> In January 1896, on reading of Röntgen's discovery, Frank Austin of [[Dartmouth College]] tested all of the discharge tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the Puluj tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Puluj's inclusion of an oblique "target" of [[mica]], used for holding samples of [[fluorescent]] material, within the tube. On 3 February 1896, Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the broken bone on [[photographic plate|gelatin photographic plates]] obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen's work.<ref name= PKS>{{cite journal | vauthors = Spiegel PK | title = The first clinical X-ray made in America—100 years | journal = AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology | volume = 164 | issue = 1 | pages = 241–243 | date = January 1995 | pmid = 7998549 | doi = 10.2214/ajr.164.1.7998549 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[File:X-ray 1896 nouvelle iconographie de salpetriere.jpg|thumb|left|1896 plaque published in ''"Nouvelle Iconographie de la Salpetrière"'', a medical journal. In the left a hand deformity, in the right same hand seen using [[radiography]]. The authors named the technique ''Röntgen photography''.]]

Many experimenters, including Röntgen himself in his original experiments, came up with methods to view X-ray images "live" using some form of luminescent screen.<ref name=Feldman1989/> Röntgen used a screen coated with barium [[platinocyanide]]. On 5 February 1896, live imaging devices were developed by both Italian scientist Enrico Salvioni (his "cryptoscope") and [[William Francis Magie]] of [[Princeton University]] (his "Skiascope"), both using barium platinocyanide. American inventor [[Thomas Edison]] started research soon after Röntgen's discovery and investigated materials' ability to fluoresce when exposed to X-rays, finding that [[calcium tungstate]] was the most effective substance. In May 1896, he developed the first mass-produced live imaging device, his "Vitascope", later called the [[fluoroscopy|fluoroscope]], which became the standard for medical X-ray examinations.<ref name=Feldman1989/> Edison dropped X-ray research around 1903, before the death of [[Clarence Madison Dally]], one of his glassblowers. Dally had a habit of testing X-ray tubes on his own hands, developing a cancer in them so tenacious that both arms were [[amputation|amputated]] in a futile attempt to save his life; in 1904, he became the first known death attributed to X-ray exposure.<ref name=Feldman1989/> During the time the fluoroscope was being developed, Serbian American physicist [[Mihajlo Pupin]], using a calcium tungstate screen developed by Edison, found that using a fluorescent screen decreased the exposure time it took to create an X-ray for medical imaging from an hour to a few minutes.<ref>Nicolaas A. Rupke, ''Eminent Lives in Twentieth-Century Science and Religion'', page 300, Peter Lang, 2009 {{ISBN|3631581203}}</ref><ref name=Feldman1989/>

In 1901, [[assassination of William McKinley|U.S. President William McKinley was shot twice]] in an assassination attempt while attending the [[Pan-American Exposition|Pan American Exposition]] in [[Buffalo, New York]]. While one bullet only grazed his [[sternum]], another had lodged somewhere deep inside his [[abdomen]] and could not be found. A worried McKinley aide sent word to inventor Thomas Edison to rush an [[X-ray generator|X-ray machine]] to Buffalo to find the stray bullet. It arrived but was not used. While the shooting itself had not been lethal, [[gangrene]] had developed along the path of the bullet, and McKinley died of [[septic shock]] due to bacterial infection six days later.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Visible Proofs: Forensic Views of the Body: Galleries: Cases: Could X-rays Have Saved President William McKinley?|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/visibleproofs/galleries/cases/mckinley.html|access-date=2022-01-24|website=NLM.NIH.gov}}</ref>