Editing Wisdom (section)

==Philosophical perspectives==
Philosophers have explored wisdom as a fundamental concept for millennia, debating its nature, acquisition, and role in ethical and intellectual life. Some traditions emphasize wisdom as practical decision-making, while others frame it as deep contemplation or spiritual insight. Broadly, wisdom has been categorized into theoretical wisdom (''sophia''), practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]''), and moral wisdom, with varying interpretations across different philosophical traditions.

===Western philosophy===
{{main|Western philosophy}}

====Ancient Greek philosophy====
{{main|Ancient Greek philosophy}}

Wisdom (''[[Sophia (wisdom)|sophia]]'', σοφία) played a central role in [[Ancient Greek philosophy]] and was often distinguished from mere knowledge (''[[episteme]]'', ἐπιστήμη).

=====Socrates=====
According to [[Plato]] and [[Xenophon]], the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Plato]]|title=[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]}}; {{cite book|author=[[Xenophon]]|title=[[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|Memorabilia]]}}.</ref> According to Plato's [[Apology (Plato)|''Apology'']], [[Socrates]] (469–399 BCE) decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge. He argued that true wisdom involves questioning and refining beliefs rather than assuming certainty:

{{Verse translation|lang=grc|τούτου μὲν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐγὼ σοφώτερός εἰμι: κινδυνεύει μὲν γὰρ ἡμῶν οὐδέτερος οὐδὲν καλὸν κἀγαθὸν εἰδέναι, ἀλλ᾽ οὗτος μὲν οἴεταί τι εἰδέναι οὐκ εἰδώς, ἐγὼ δέ, ὥσπερ οὖν οὐκ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι: ἔοικα γοῦν τούτου γε σμικρῷ τινι αὐτῷ τούτῳ σοφώτερος εἶναι, ὅτι ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι.|I am wiser than this man; for neither of us really knows anything fine and good, but this man thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas I, as I do not know anything, do not think I do either.}}

This became immortalized in the phrase "[[I know that I know nothing]]", an aphorism suggesting that it is wise to recognize one's own [[ignorance]]<ref>{{cite journal|first=Gail|last=Fine|title=Does Socrates Claim to Know that He Knows Nothing?|journal=Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy|volume=35|year=2008|pages=49–88|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199557790.003.0003 |isbn=978-0-19-955779-0 }}</ref> and to value [[Epistemic humility#Socratic humility theory of wisdom|epistemic humility]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Ryan|first=Sharon|title=Wisdom|year=2013|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/wisdom/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Fall 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref>

=====Plato and Aristotle=====
To Socrates and his student [[Plato]] (c. 427–347 BCE), [[philosophy]] was literally the love of wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|[[-phil-|philo]]-[[sophia (wisdom)|sophia]]}}). This permeates Plato's [[dialogue]]s; in ''[[The Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]'' the leaders of his proposed [[utopia]] are [[philosopher king]]s who, through education and contemplation, attain a deep [[understanding]] of [[justice]] and the [[Theory of Forms|Forms]], and possess the courage to act accordingly.<ref name="Trowbridge-2011">{{cite journal |last=Trowbridge |first=R. H. |date=May 2011
|title=Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of Conceptualizing Wisdom in Empirical Psychology |journal=Research in Human Development |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=111–117 |doi=10.1080/15427609.2011.568872 |s2cid=145371442}}</ref>

[[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), in ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way ([[causality]]), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way. was the first to differentiate between two types of wisdom:

*Theoretical wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|sophia}}), which involves deep contemplation of universal truths.
*Practical wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|[[phronesis]]}}), which is the ability to make sound decisions in everyday life.

Aristotle saw ''phronesis'' as essential for ethical living, arguing that virtuous actions require both knowledge and experience. This concept of practical wisdom later influenced [[virtue ethics]] and modern discussions of decision-making.<ref name="Trowbridge-2011" />

====Medieval and Renaissance thought====
In the [[Middle Ages|Medieval period]], wisdom was often linked to [[divine revelation]] and theology. [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430 CE) viewed wisdom as knowledge aligned with God's eternal truth, distinguishing it from mere worldly intelligence.<ref>{{cite book |last=Augustine |first=Saint |title=The City of God |orig-year=426 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=London}}</ref> He argued that true wisdom (''sapientia'') comes from knowing and loving God, contrasting it with human knowledge (''scientia''), which concerns temporal matters.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Daly |first=Gerard |title=Augustine's City of God: A Reader's Guide |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

[[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274) built upon [[Aristotle]]'s distinction between theoretical and practical wisdom, incorporating it into [[Christian theology]]. He argued that wisdom (''sapientia'') is the highest intellectual virtue, guiding [[reason]] toward ultimate truth and divine understanding.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aquinas |first=Thomas |title=Summa Theologica |orig-year=1265–1274 |year=1981 |publisher=Christian Classics}}</ref> Aquinas distinguished between natural wisdom, which humans acquire through reason, and supernatural wisdom, which comes through divine revelation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kretzmann |first=Norman |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas |year=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

During the [[Renaissance]], humanist thinkers such as [[Erasmus]] (1466–1536) and [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]] (1533–1592) emphasized the role of self-reflection and skepticism in wisdom, challenging dogmatic reliance on authority.<ref>{{cite book |last=Erasmus |first=Desiderius |title=The Praise of Folly |orig-year=1511 |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> Montaigne, in his ''[[Essays (Montaigne)|Essays]]'', proposed that true wisdom lies in acknowledging uncertainty and maintaining intellectual humility.<ref>{{cite book |last=Montaigne |first=Michel de |title=The Complete Essays |orig-year=1580 |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0140446043}}</ref> The Renaissance emphasis on human reason and critical inquiry laid the groundwork for early modern philosophical discussions of wisdom.

====Modern and contemporary philosophy====
In the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the concept of wisdom shifted from religious and metaphysical frameworks to one rooted in rationality and moral duty. [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) argued that wisdom involves the application of practical reason to align one’s actions with universal moral principles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Critique of Practical Reason |orig-year=1788 |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> He distinguished between theoretical reason, which seeks knowledge for its own sake, and practical reason, which applies knowledge ethically. Kantian wisdom involves making decisions that conform to the categorical imperative, a moral law derived from reason.

During the 19th century, romanticism and existentialism challenged the rationalist foundations of wisdom. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] (1844–1900) criticized traditional views of wisdom as passive contemplation and obedience to moral codes. Instead, he championed "life-affirming wisdom", emphasizing personal growth through struggle and self-overcoming.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nietzsche |first=Friedrich |title=Thus Spoke Zarathustra |orig-year=1883 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Nietzsche rejected the pursuit of static truths, instead advocating for a dynamic and self-created form of wisdom.

Existentialist philosophers further expanded this critique. [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] (1905–1980) viewed wisdom as a confrontation with the absurd condition of life and the freedom to create meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sartre |first=Jean-Paul |title=Being and Nothingness |orig-year=1943 |year=1993 |publisher=Washington Square Press}}</ref> [[Albert Camus]] (1913–1960) echoed these ideas in ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', arguing that wisdom lies in accepting life's absurdity and choosing to live meaningfully despite its challenges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Camus |first=Albert |title=The Myth of Sisyphus |orig-year=1942 |year=1991 |publisher=Vintage International}}</ref>

In the 20th century, pragmatist philosophers like [[John Dewey]] (1859–1952) argued for a form of wisdom based on adaptability and practical decision-making. Dewey rejected fixed moral absolutes in favor of wisdom as a constantly evolving process of inquiry and experimentation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dewey |first=John |title=Democracy and Education |orig-year=1916 |year=2018 |publisher=Free Press}}</ref> Pragmatic wisdom, according to Dewey, emerges from ongoing reflection on experience and the ability to adapt principles to changing contexts.

Meanwhile, [[Virtue ethics|virtue ethicists]] such as [[Martha Nussbaum]] argue that wisdom is tied to [[emotional intelligence]] and [[empathy]]. In her works on [[Aristotelian ethics]], Nussbaum writes that wise individuals understand the complexities of human emotions and integrate them into moral reasoning.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha |title=The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy |orig-year=1986 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> This perspective sees wisdom not merely as intellectual discernment but as the capacity to recognize the emotional and contextual dimensions of moral life.

[[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] philosophers challenge the notion of wisdom as a universal concept. [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) argued that ideas of wisdom are shaped by power structures and are inherently subjective, often serving to reinforce dominant ideologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foucault |first=Michel |title=The Archaeology of Knowledge |orig-year=1969 |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Postmodern perspectives emphasize cultural relativism and the diversity of wisdom across historical and social contexts rather than a singular definition.

Today, contemporary discussions of wisdom draw from cognitive science and social philosophy. Philosophers like [[Philip Kitcher]] focus on practical wisdom as collaborative decision-making in democratic societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kitcher |first=Philip |title=The Ethical Project |year=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> This view holds that wisdom is not an individual trait but a collective process involving diverse perspectives. As such, modern philosophy views wisdom as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by emotional, social, and cognitive factors.

===Eastern philosophy===
{{main|Eastern philosophy}}

====In Confucian thought====
{{main|Confucianism}}
[[File:Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|thumb|[[Confucius]] in a fresco from a [[Western Han]] tomb in [[Dongping County|Dongping]], [[Shandong]]]]

In Confucian thought, wisdom (''[[Mencius (book)#Content|zhi]]'', 智) is closely linked to ethical living and social harmony. [[Confucius]] (551–479 BCE) taught that wisdom is not merely intelligence but the ability to act virtuously in relationships and governance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Confucius |title=The Analects |orig-year=5th century BCE |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> It involves self-cultivation, learning from the past, and practicing benevolence (''[[Ren (philosophy)|ren]]'', 仁), which Confucius regarded as a foundational virtue.<ref name="auto"/>

Wisdom in Confucianism is practical and moral, requiring individuals to cultivate righteousness (''yi'', 義) and ritual propriety (''li'', 禮) in order to contribute to a stable society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chan |first=Wing-Tsit |title=A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy |orig-year=1963 |year=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> The ideal wise person, or "superior person" (''junzi'', 君子), embodies wisdom by continuously refining their character and aligning their actions with ethical principles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Slingerland |first=Edward |title=Effortless Action: Wu-wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

Later Confucian thinkers expanded on this concept. [[Mencius]] (372–289 BCE) emphasized compassion and moral intuition as sources of wisdom, arguing that humans are naturally inclined toward goodness but must develop wisdom through education and reflection.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mencius |title=Mencius |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2004 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> [[Xunzi (philosopher)|Xunzi]] (c. 310–235 BCE), by contrast, saw wisdom as the product of strict discipline and adherence to ritual, believing that human nature is inherently flawed and must be shaped through deliberate effort.<ref>{{cite book |last=Xunzi |title=Xunzi: The Complete Text |orig-year=3rd century BCE |year=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

The Confucian approach to wisdom remains influential in [[East Asia]]n ethics, education, and leadership philosophy, continuing to shape modern discussions on morality and governance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tu |first=Wei-ming |title=Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation |orig-year=1985 |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>

====In Buddhist philosophy====
{{main|Buddhist philosophy}}

[[File:Shakyamuni-Thangka.jpg|thumb|Shakyamuni Buddha flanked by Chenrezig and Manjushri]]
In Buddhist philosophy, wisdom (''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|prajñā]]'', प्रज्ञा) is one of the threefold training principles (along with ethics and meditation). It involves seeing reality as it truly is, free from delusions. In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], wisdom is often personified by the Bodhisattva [[Manjushri]], who wields a sword to cut through ignorance. [[Zen]] traditions emphasize ''[[satori]]'' (悟り), a sudden flash of wisdom or enlightenment. In [[Theravāda Buddhism]], wisdom is developed through [[vipassanā]] (insight meditation), leading to the realization of [[impermanence]] (''anicca''), suffering (''[[duḥkha]]''), and non-self (''[[anattā]]''). Buddhist religious traditions provide comprehensive guidance on how to develop wisdom.<ref name="Karunamuni-2019">{{cite journal|last1=Karunamuni|first1=N.|last2=Weerasekera|first2=R.|title=Theoretical Foundations to Guide Mindfulness Meditation: A Path to Wisdom|journal=Current Psychology|volume=38|issue=3|pages=627–646|doi=10.1007/s12144-017-9631-7|url=http://mindrxiv.org/mfs63/|year=2019|s2cid=149024504}}</ref><ref name="Bhikkhu Bodhi">{{cite web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/waytoend.html|title=The Noble Eightfold Path|access-date=16 March 2009|publisher=Access to Insight|first=Bhikkhu|last=Bodhi}}</ref>

The term {{transliteration|sa|[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajñā]]}} was translated [[Chinese Buddhism|into Chinese]] as
{{lang|zh|智慧}} (pinyin {{transliteration|zh|zhìhuì}}, characters [[:wikt:智|智]] "knowledge" and [[:wikt:慧|慧]] "bright, intelligent"). In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom is closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist between [[Asanga]], [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Xuanzang]].{{Explain|reason=what are these continuities, how do they illustrate the linkage?|date=August 2023}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jannel |first1=Romaric |title=Xuanzang and the Three Types of Wisdom: Learning, Reasoning, and Cultivating in Yogācāra Thought |journal=Religions |date=May 2022 |volume=13 |issue=6 |page=486 |doi=10.3390/rel13060486 |doi-access=free |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/JANXAT.pdf }}</ref>

Developing wisdom is of central importance in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the "complete freedom from suffering".<ref name="Karunamuni-2019" /><ref name="Bhikkhu Bodhi" /> In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the [[Four Noble Truths]] and by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].<ref name="Karunamuni-2019" /><ref name="Bhikkhu Bodhi" /> This path lists [[mindfulness]] as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom.<ref name="Karunamuni-2019" />

Buddhist scriptures teach that wise people conduct themselves well.<ref>''[[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]]'' 3:2</ref> A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results.<ref>''AN'' 4:115</ref> Wisdom is the [[antidote]] to the [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|poison]] of [[ignorance]]. The [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:

* He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in [[Dhamma]]). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.<ref>''[[Dhammapada]]'' v. 256</ref>
* He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v. 257</ref>
* One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v. 258</ref>
* By quietude alone one does not become a [[Wise old man|sage]] ({{transliteration|sa|muni}}) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a {{transliteration|sa|muni}} by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v. 268–269</ref>

To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature ([[Buddha-nature]] or [[Tathāgata|Tathagata]]) concealed by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|kleshas]]: greed, anger, ignorance), Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

==== In Hindu philosophy ====
{{Main|Hindu philosophy}}

In Hindu philosophy, wisdom (''[[jñāna]]'', ज्ञान) is closely associated with [[self-realization]] and spiritual knowledge. Unlike the empirical knowledge (''vidyā'', विद्या) gained through sensory experience, wisdom in Hinduism involves insight into the ultimate nature of reality (''[[Brahman]]'', ब्रह्मन्) and the self (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]'', आत्मन्).<ref name="auto1"/> The [[Upanishads]], foundational texts of Hindu thought, describe wisdom as the realization that all worldly distinctions are illusions (''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'', माया), and that the self is one with the infinite consciousness of Brahman.<ref>{{cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation |orig-year=1998 |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

Within [[Vedanta]] philosophy, wisdom is considered the path to liberation (''[[mokṣa]]'', मोक्ष). [[Adi Shankaracharya]] (c. 8th century CE) argued that true wisdom (''[[jnana yoga]]'') arises through discrimination (''viveka'', विवेक) between the real and the unreal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shankara |first=Adi |title=Vivekachudamani: Crest-Jewel of Discrimination |orig-year=8th century CE |year=2004 |publisher=Advaita Ashrama}}</ref> He taught that ignorance (''avidyā'', अविद्या) binds individuals to the cycle of [[samsara]] (rebirth), and wisdom is the means to overcome illusion and attain self-realization.<ref>{{cite book |last=Comans |first=Michael |title=The Method of Early Advaita Vedanta |orig-year=2000 |year=2000 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref> In contrast, [[Dvaita Vedanta]], founded by [[Madhvacharya]] (13th century CE), holds that wisdom involves recognizing the eternal distinction between the self and God, rather than dissolving all distinctions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=B. N. K. |title=The Philosophy of Madhvacharya |orig-year=1962 |year=2008 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref>

Wisdom is also a core element in Hindu sacred texts, including the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', where [[Krishna]] teaches [[Arjuna]] that true wisdom transcends personal desires and emotions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Easwaran |first=Eknath |title=The Bhagavad Gita |orig-year=1985 |year=2007 |publisher=Nilgiri Press}}</ref> The Gita outlines three paths to wisdom:

* [[Jnana yoga]] – the path of intellectual discernment and self-inquiry.
* [[Bhakti yoga]] – the path of devotion to a personal deity as a means to wisdom.
* [[Karma yoga]] – the path of selfless action leading to enlightened understanding.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sargeant |first=Winthrop |title=The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Edition |orig-year=1984 |year=2009 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>

Hindu wisdom traditions remain deeply influential in both spiritual practice and philosophical inquiry, with modern thinkers like [[Swami Vivekananda]] and [[Aurobindo Ghose]] integrating ancient wisdom concepts with contemporary thought.<ref>{{cite book |last=Halbfass |first=Wilhelm |title=Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought |orig-year=1991 |year=1991 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref> [[Medha Sūktam|''Medha'']] is a goddess of wisdom found in the ''[[Garuda Purana]]''.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 = Scott
| first1 = David
| date = 1998
| title = The Perennial Message of 'the Goddess': Enduring Themes down the Ages in Bactria
| url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757365
| journal = East and West
| volume = 48
| issue = 1/2
| pages = 27–39
| jstor = 29757365
| access-date = 25 July 2024
| quote = In the ''Garuda Purana'' 1.7.9, one of the manifestations of the energy of Sarasvati was ''medha'' (wisdom), an identification repeated with respect to the Goddess in the ''Devi Mahatmya'' 1.11. Thus it is no surprise to find with Anahita, in verse 86 of her ''Aban Yast'', that 'the priests (''athravans'') who read and the pupils of the priest will beg of thee knowledge'.}}</ref>

====In Taoist philosophy====
{{main|Taoist philosophy}}
[[File:Bagua Zhao Huiqian.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|''Bagua'' diagram from Zhao Huiqian's ({{lang|zh|趙撝謙}}) ''Liushu benyi'' ({{lang|zh|六書本義}}, {{circa|1370s}})]]

Taoist views of wisdom (''[[wu wei]]'', 無為) emphasizes effortless action, aligning with the natural flow of the universe (''[[Tao]]''). While early Confucianism values social harmony and structured virtue, Taoist wisdom often embraces paradox and non-conformity. The ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' text, attributed to [[Zhuang Zhou]] (c. 4th century BCE), presents wisdom as a state of effortless flow (''wu wei''), where one aligns with the spontaneous patterns of nature rather than imposing human will.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zhuangzi |title=Zhuangzi: Basic Writings |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2003 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> This contrasts with Confucian ideals of ritual and duty, as Taoist wisdom values freedom from rigid thinking and acceptance of change.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |title=Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Zhuangzi |year=1998 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}</ref>

Taoist wisdom also includes cosmological insight, recognizing that all things emerge from the ''[[Tao]]'' (道), the fundamental force of existence.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kirkland |first=Russell |title=Taoism: The Enduring Tradition |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> In ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' (道德經), attributed to [[Laozi]] (6th century BCE), wisdom is described as yielding like water, able to overcome obstacles through gentleness rather than force.<ref name="Laozi-2006">{{cite book |last=Laozi |title=Tao Te Ching |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2006 |publisher=Hackett Publishing}}</ref> This perspective aligns with Taoist ethics, which discourage aggression and rigid control, instead promoting a harmonious existence in sync with nature’s rhythms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Roger T. |title=Dao De Jing: A Philosophical Translation |year=2003 |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0345444196}}</ref> He also describes wisdom as understanding the balance of opposites ([[Yin and yang|Yin and Yang]]) and acting in harmony with nature rather than imposing force.<ref name="Laozi-2006"/>

Unlike Western views, Taoist wisdom often involves paradox and non-action, valuing spontaneity over rigid rules. Taoist sages are often depicted as detached from worldly concerns, seeking a deeper, wordless understanding of existence that transcends conventional logic.<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinet |first=Isabelle |title=Taoism: Growth of a Religion |year=1997 |publisher=Stanford University Press}}</ref>