Editing Western imperialism in Asia (section)

==Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia==
{{further|Portuguese Empire|Portuguese India Armadas|Manila galleon|Treaty of Tordesillas|Treaty of Zaragoza}}

===Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean and Asia===
[[File:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Afonso de Albuquerque]]]]

In 1509, the Portuguese under [[Francisco de Almeida]] won the decisive [[battle of Diu]] against a joint [[Burji dynasty|Mamluk]] and Arab fleet sent to expel the Portuguese of the Arabian Sea. The victory enabled Portugal to implement its strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean.

Early in the 16th century, [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroy most instrumental in consolidating Portugal's holdings in Africa and in Asia. He understood that Portugal could wrest commercial supremacy from the Arabs only by force, and therefore devised a plan to establish forts at strategic sites which would dominate the trade routes and also protect Portuguese interests on land. In 1510, he [[Portuguese conquest of Goa|conquered Goa]] in India, which enabled him to gradually consolidate control of most of the commercial traffic between Europe and Asia, largely through trade; Europeans started to carry on trade from forts, acting as foreign merchants rather than as settlers. In contrast, early European expansion in the "[[West Indies]]", (later known to Europeans as a separate continent from Asia that they would call the "[[Americas]]") following the 1492 voyage of [[Christopher Columbus]], involved heavy settlement in colonies that were treated as political extensions of the mother countries.

Lured by the potential of high profits from another expedition, the Portuguese established a permanent base in [[History of Kochi|Cochin]], south of the Indian trade port of [[Calicut (kingdom)|Calicut]] in the early 16th century. In 1510, the Portuguese, led by [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], seized Goa on the coast of India, which [[Portugal]] held until 1961, along with [[Diu, India|Diu]] and [[Daman district, India|Daman]] (the remaining territory and enclaves in India from a former network of coastal towns and smaller fortified trading ports added and abandoned or lost centuries before). The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean.

Portuguese viceroy Albuquerque (1509–1515) resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the [[East Indies]] and China. His first objective was [[Malacca]], which controlled the narrow strait through which most Far Eastern trade moved. [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|Captured in 1511]], Malacca became the springboard for further eastward penetration, starting with the voyage of [[António de Abreu]] and [[Francisco Serrão]] in 1512, ordered by Albuquerque, to the Moluccas. Years later the first trading posts were established in the [[Moluccas]], or "Spice Islands", which was the source for some of the world's most hotly demanded spices, and from there, in [[Makassar]] and some others, but smaller, in the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. By 1513–1516, the first Portuguese ships had reached [[Guangdong|Canton]] on the southern coasts of China.

[[File:Portuguese discoveries and explorationsV2en.png|thumb|upright=2.8|[[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese expeditions]] 1415–1542: arrival places and dates; Portuguese [[spice trade]] routes in the [[Indian Ocean]] (blue); territories of the [[Portuguese empire]] under [[King John III of Portugal|King John III]] rule (green)]]
In 1513, after the failed attempt to conquer [[Aden]], Albuquerque entered with an armada, for the first time for Europeans by the ocean via, on the [[Red Sea]]; and in 1515, Albuquerque consolidated the Portuguese hegemony in the [[Persian Gulf]] gates, already begun by him in 1507, with the domain of [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] and [[Ormuz]]. Shortly after, other fortified bases and forts were annexed and built along the Gulf, and in 1521, through a military campaign, the Portuguese annexed [[Bahrain]].

The Portuguese conquest of Malacca triggered the [[Malayan–Portuguese war]]. In 1521, [[Ming dynasty]] China defeated the Portuguese at the [[Battle of Tunmen]] and then defeated the Portuguese again at the [[Battle of Xicaowan]]. The Portuguese tried to establish trade with China by illegally smuggling with the pirates on the offshore islands{{Which|date=August 2016}} off the coast of [[Zhejiang]] and [[Fujian]], but they were driven away by the [[Ming]] navy in the 1530s-1540s.

In 1557, China decided to lease [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]] to the Portuguese as a place where they could dry goods they transported on their ships, which they held until 1999. The Portuguese, based at Goa and Malacca, had now established a lucrative maritime empire in the Indian Ocean meant to monopolize the [[spice trade]]. The Portuguese also began a channel of trade with the Japanese, becoming the first recorded Westerners to have visited Japan. This contact introduced Christianity and firearms into Japan.

In 1505, (also possibly before, in 1501), the Portuguese, through [[Lourenço de Almeida]], the son of Francisco de Almeida, reached [[Ceylon]]. The Portuguese founded a fort at the city of [[Colombo]] in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas and inland. In a series of military conflicts and political maneuvers, the Portuguese extended their control over the [[Sinhala Kingdom|Sinhalese kingdoms]], including [[Jaffna Kingdom|Jaffna]] (1591), [[Kingdom of Raigama|Raigama]] (1593), [[Kingdom of Sitawaka|Sitawaka]] (1593), and [[Kingdom of Kotte|Kotte]] (1594)- However, the aim of unifying the entire island under Portuguese control faced the [[Kingdom of Kandy]]`s fierce resistance.<ref name="Fernando2013">{{cite book|author=Jude Lal Fernando|title=Religion, Conflict and Peace in Sri Lanka: The Politics of Interpretation of Nationhoods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWInAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA135|date=11 June 2013|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-90428-7|page=135}}</ref> The Portuguese, led by [[Pedro Lopes de Sousa]], launched a full-scale military invasion of the kingdom of Kandy in the [[Campaign of Danture]] of 1594. The invasion was a disaster for the Portuguese, with their entire army wiped out by Kandyan [[guerrilla warfare]].<ref name="Perera2007">{{cite book|author=C. Gaston Perera|title=Kandy fights the Portuguese: a military history of Kandyan resistance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgtuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Danture%22%20%221594%22|year=2007|publisher=Vijitha Yapa Publications|isbn=978-955-1266-77-6|page=148}}</ref><ref name="Obeyesekere1999">{{cite book|author=Donald Obeyesekere|title=Outlines of Ceylon History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDwvQF_OgvMC&pg=PA232|year=1999|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1363-8|page=232}}</ref> [[Constantino de Sá de Noronha|Constantino de Sá]], romantically celebrated in the 17th century Sinhalese Epic (also for its greater humanism and tolerance compared to other governors) led the last military operation that also ended in disaster. He died in the [[Battle of Randeniwela]], refusing to abandon his troops in the face of total annihilation.<ref>[http://www.ceylontoday.lk/64-92267-news-detail-rasin-deviyo.html Rasin Deviyo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222130125/http://www.ceylontoday.lk/64-92267-news-detail-rasin-deviyo.html |date=2015-12-22 }} - Chandra Tilake Edirisuriya (Ceylon Today) Accessed 2015-12-13</ref>

The energies of Castile (later, the ''unified'' Spain), the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia, but the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the Philippines. After fighting with the Portuguese by the Spice Islands since 1522 and the agreement between the two powers in 1529 (in the treaty of Zaragoza), the Spanish, led by [[Miguel López de Legazpi]], settled and conquered gradually the Philippines since 1564. After the discovery of the return voyage to the Americas by [[Andres de Urdaneta]] in 1565, cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the [[Philippines]] to [[Mexico]] and from there to [[Spain]]. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the islands to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce. The Moro Muslims fought against the Spanish for over three centuries in the [[Spanish–Moro conflict]].

===Decline of Portugal's Asian empire since the 17th century===
[[File:AMH-6472-KB Battle for Malacca between the VOC fleet and the Portuguese, 1606.jpg|thumb|Dutch and Portuguese ships battling over the control of Malacca during the [[Dutch–Portuguese War]], 1606]]
The lucrative trade was vastly expanded when the Portuguese began to export [[Slavery|slave]]s from Africa in 1541; however, over time, the rise of the slave trade left Portugal over-extended, and vulnerable to competition from other Western European powers. Envious of Portugal's control of trade routes, other Western European nations—mainly the [[Netherlands]], France, and England—began to send in rival expeditions to Asia. In 1642, the Dutch drove the Portuguese out of the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] in Africa, the source of the bulk of Portuguese slave laborers, leaving this rich slaving area to other Europeans, especially the Dutch and the English.

Rival European powers began to make inroads in Asia as the Portuguese and Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean declined primarily because they had become hugely over-stretched financially due to the limitations on their investment capacity and contemporary naval technology. Both of these factors worked in tandem, making control over Indian Ocean trade extremely expensive.

The existing Portuguese interests in Asia proved sufficient to finance further colonial expansion and entrenchment in areas regarded as of greater strategic importance in [[Africa]] and [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]]. Portuguese maritime supremacy was lost to the Dutch in the 17th century, and with this came serious challenges for the Portuguese. However, they still clung to Macau and settled a new colony on the island of [[Timor]]. It was as recent as the 1960s and 1970s that the Portuguese began to relinquish their colonies in Asia. Goa was invaded by India in 1961 and became an Indian state in 1987; [[Portuguese Timor]] was abandoned in 1975 and was then invaded by [[Indonesia]]. It became an independent country in 2002, and Macau was handed back to the Chinese as per a treaty in 1999.

===Holy wars===
The arrival of the Portuguese and Spanish and their holy wars against Muslim states in the [[Malayan–Portuguese war]], [[Spanish–Moro conflict]] and [[Castilian War]] inflamed religious tensions and turned Southeast Asia into an arena of conflict between Muslims and Christians. The Brunei Sultanate's capital at Kota Batu was assaulted by Governor Sande who led the 1578 Spanish attack.<ref>{{cite book|title=Philippine Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zphuAAAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=1986|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|page=260}}</ref>

The word "savages" in Spanish, cafres, was from the word "infidel" in Arabic - Kafir, and was used by the Spanish to refer to their own "Christian savages" who were arrested in Brunei.<ref>{{cite book|title=Brunei Museum journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ASIAAAAIAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1985|page=67|last1 = Brunei|first1 = Muzium}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Brunei Museum Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7RwAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1986|publisher=The Museum|page=67}}</ref> It was said ''Castilians are kafir, men who have no souls, who are condemned by fire when they die, and that too because they eat pork'' by the Brunei Sultan after the term ''accursed doctrine'' was used to attack Islam by the Spaniards which fed into hatred between Muslims and Christians sparked by their 1571 war against Brunei.<ref name="AndayaAndaya2015">{{cite book|author1=Barbara Watson Andaya|author2=Leonard Y. Andaya|title=A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rh2BgAAQBAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA145|date=19 February 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-88992-6|pages=145–}}</ref> The Sultan's words were in response to insults coming from the Spanish at Manila in 1578, other Muslims from Champa, Java, Borneo, Luzon, Pahang, Demak, Aceh, and the Malays echoed the rhetoric of holy war against the Spanish and Iberian Portuguese, calling them kafir enemies which was a contrast to their earlier nuanced views of the Portuguese in the Hikayat Tanah Hitu and Sejarah Melayu.<ref name="Reid1993">{{cite book|author=Anthony Reid|title=Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: Expansion and crisis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vxgHExnla4MC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA148|date=1 January 1993|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-05412-5|pages=148–}}</ref><ref name="Reid1993 2">{{cite book|author=Anthony Reid|title=Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2SSpt4YuKwC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA166|year=1993|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0-8014-8093-0|pages=166–}}</ref> The war by Spain against Brunei was defended in an apologia written by Doctor De Sande.<ref name="Nicholl1975">{{cite book|author=Robert Nicholl|title=European Sources for the History of the Sultanate of Brunei in the 16th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CmweAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1975|publisher=Muzium Brunei|page=43}}</ref> The British eventually partitioned and took over Brunei while Sulu was attacked by the British, Americans, and Spanish which caused its breakdown and downfall after both of them thrived from 1500 to 1900 for four centuries.<ref name="CasiñoCasiño1976">{{cite book|author1=Eric Casiño|author2=Eric S. Casiño|title=The Jama Mapun: a changing Samal society in the southern Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2P0eAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1976|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|page=30|isbn=9780686094326}}</ref> Dar al-Islam was seen as under invasion by "kafirs" by the Atjehnese led by Zayn al-din and by Muslims in the Philippines as they saw the Spanish invasion, since the Spanish brought the idea of a crusader holy war against Muslim Moros just as the Portuguese did in Indonesia and India against what they called "Moors" in their political and commercial conquests which they saw through the lens of religion in the 16th century.<ref name="Dale1980">{{cite book|author=Stephen Frederic Dale|title=Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Māppiḷas of Malabar, 1498-1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22JuAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1980|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-821571-4|page=58}}</ref>

In 1578, an attack was launched by the Spanish against Jolo, and in 1875 it was destroyed at their hands, and once again in 1974 it was destroyed by the Philippines.<ref name="Ooi2004">{{cite book |author=Ooi |first=Keat Gin |author-link=Keat Gin Ooi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA1705 |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |date=1 January 2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |pages=1705–}}</ref> The Spanish first set foot on Borneo in Brunei.<ref name="Ober1907">{{cite book|author=Frederick Albion Ober|title=Ferdinand Magellan|url=https://archive.org/details/ferdinandmagella00ober|quote=brunei kafir spanish.|year=1907|publisher=Harper and brothers|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ferdinandmagella00ober/page/295 295]–}}</ref>

The Spanish war against Brunei failed to conquer Brunei but it totally cut off the Philippines from Brunei's influence, the Spanish then started colonizing Mindanao and building fortresses. In response, the Bisayas, where Spanish forces were stationed, were subjected to retaliatory attacks by the Magindanao in 1599-1600 due to the Spanish attacks on Mindanao.<ref>{{cite book|title=Filipino Heritage: The Spanish colonial period (16th century)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1sYRAQAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=1977|publisher=Lahing Pilipino Pub.|location=Manila|page=1083}}</ref>

The Brunei royal family was related to the Muslim Rajahs who in ruled the principality in 1570 of Manila ([[Kingdom of Maynila]]) and this was what the Spaniards came across on their initial arrival to Manila, Spain uprooted Islam out of areas where it was shallow after they began to force Christianity on the Philippines in their conquests after 1521 while Islam was already widespread in the 16th century Philippines.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Criterion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XlMkAQAAIAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=1971|publisher=K.Siddique|page=51}}</ref> In the Philippines in the Cebu islands the natives killed the Spanish fleet leader Magellan. Borneo's western coastal areas at Landak, Sukadana, and Sambas saw the growth of Muslim states in the sixteenth century, in the 15th century at Nanking, the capital of China, the death and burial of the Borneo Bruneian king Maharaja Kama took place upon his visit to China with Zheng He's fleet.<ref name="Payne2000">{{cite book|author=Junaidi Payne|title=This is Borneo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPhvAAAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=2000|publisher=New Holland|isbn=978-1-85974-106-1|page=28}}</ref>

The Spanish were expelled from Brunei in 1579 after they attacked in 1578.<ref name="RingSalkin1994">{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring|author2=Robert M. Salkin|author3=Sharon La Boda|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA158|year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-04-6|pages=158–}}</ref><ref name="RingWatson2012">{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring|author2=Noelle Watson|author3=Paul Schellinger|title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA158|date=12 November 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-63979-1|pages=158–}}</ref> There were fifty thousand inhabitants before the 1597 attack by the Spanish in Brunei.<ref name="Tarling1999">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Tarling|author-link=Nicholas Tarling|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtsMLNmMzbkC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA129|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66370-0|pages=129–}}</ref><ref name="Tarling1999 2">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Tarling|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA129|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66370-0|pages=129–}}</ref>

During first contact with China, numerous aggressions and provocations were undertaken by the Portuguese<ref name="Zhang1934">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA48|year=1934|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=48–|id=GGKEY:0671BSWDRPY}}</ref><ref name="Zhang1934 2">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnUaAAAAMAAJ&q=behavior+abhorred|year=1934|publisher=Late E. J. Brill Limited|page=48}}</ref> They believed they could mistreat the non-Christians because they themselves were Christians and acted in the name of their religion in committing crimes and atrocities.<ref name="Zhang1934 3">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67|year=1934|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=67–|id=GGKEY:0671BSWDRPY}}</ref><ref name="Zhang1934 4">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnUaAAAAMAAJ&q=Christian+heathens|year=1934|publisher=Late E. J. Brill Limited|page=67}}</ref> This resulted in the [[Battle of Xicaowan]] where the local Chinese navy defeated and captured a fleet of Portuguese caravels.