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Władysław III of Poland
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==Reign, 1434–1444== ===Coronation, 1434=== [[File:Wladyslaw III as a child.webp|thumb|right|Young Władysław III depicted in a 15th-century prayerbook. The [[Coat of arms of Poland|Polish White Eagle]] can be seen in the shield.]] Władysław was crowned at Wawel Cathedral on 25 July 1434 by the elderly Wojciech Jastrzębiec.{{sfn|Sokołowski|Inlender|1897|page=312}}{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=234}}{{efn|Teresa Pac incorrectly provides the date as 25 August 1434 in her work ''Common Culture and the Ideology of Difference in Medieval and Contemporary Poland''.{{sfn|Pac|2022|page=150}}}} There is evidence that the [[coronation]] was closely supervised by Oleśnicki, who was instrumental in determining how the investiture is conducted.{{sfn|Pac|2022|pages=149–150}} Changes were made to the order of formalities under Oleśnicki's ''Ordo ad cornandum ad regem Poloniae'', notably the young monarch was obliged to take an [[oath]] before the [[anointment]] and the handing over of [[Polish crown jewels|Polish royal insignia]].{{sfn|Pac|2022|pages=149–150}} This act was to be seen as submission to the privileges of nobles; the [[Royal elections in Poland|king-elect's fulfillment of the elites' requirements]], not [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary]] rights, was a condition for obtaining the throne in the Kingdom of Poland.{{sfn|Pac|2022|page=150}} Furthermore, the crown jewels were given to the officials, rather than being placed at the [[altar]], implying Władysław's minority and the officials' active participation in the coronation.{{sfn|Pac|2022|page=150}} The act in which Władysław undertook ''[[sign of the cross|signum crucis]]'' with a sword in the direction of the four corners of the world was abandoned.{{sfn|Pac|2022|page=150}} The chronicler [[Jan Długosz]] (Latin: Johannes Longinus) writes that the boy king, dressed in royal garments and accompanied by bishops Oleśnicki and {{ill|Stanisław z Pawłowic|pl}}, [[Bishop of Płock]], rode from [[Wawel Castle]] to greet the townsfolk.{{sfn|Długosz|1869|page=506}} However, a customary [[homage (feudal)|feudal homage]] by the [[burgher (social class)|burghers]] at [[Kraków Town Hall]] came into effect because of a disagreement between the bishops and [[Masovia]] princes concerning the [[order of precedence]] in the royal [[procession]] and on sitting arrangements.{{sfn|Długosz|1869|page=506}} ===Regency, 1434–1438=== Shortly after the coronation, senior nobles held both covert and open conventions to discuss the possibility of instituting a [[regency]] as the king was still a minor and could not govern.{{sfn|Długosz|1869|pages=506–507}} Duke Siemowit, who was staying in the capital of Kraków at the time, remained a valid contender for the role of regent or caretaker because of his personal qualities and rank, however, the idea was soon dismissed. Many of the noble lords believed that Siemowit could [[usurper|seize the crown for himself]], rather than remain an inferior subject to the boy.{{sfn|Długosz|1869|pages=506–507}} Queen Sophia's attempts to be named regent, in accordance with her late husband's instructions, also failed and the general indecisiveness caused the apex of [[oligarchy|oligarch]] influence in medieval Poland.{{sfn|Nowakowska|2017}} As compromise, a regency council was formed comprising regional governors called the ''provisores''.{{sfn|Długosz|1869|page=507}} Długosz noted three members, each selected for merit and "wisdom",{{efn|The Polish term "rozum", embedded in the chronicles of Jan Długosz, is directly translated as "the mind" and can be interpreted as "wisdom".{{sfn|Długosz|1869|page=507}}}} which was possibly aimed at curtailing Zbigniew Oleśnicki's influence.{{sfn|Długosz|1869|page=507}}{{sfn|Olejnik|1996|page=55}} Nonetheless, Oleśnicki retained considerable control over Władysław's upbringing.{{sfn|Nowakowska|2017}} It is believed that Władysław did not have a decisive voice in politics and the situation did not change even after the [[Sejm]], the Polish Parliament, had gathered in [[Piotrków Trybunalski|Piotrków]] in 1438 and declared the 14-year-old king to have attained his majority.{{sfn|Prokop|2001|page=23}} ===Civil war in Lithuania, 1434–1438=== {{further|Polish–Teutonic Wars}} [[File:Wladyslaw III, King of Poland.jpg|thumb|right|Władysław portrayed in a prayerbook held at the [[Bodleian Library]] in [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], 15th century.]] Władysław faced certain challenges early in his reign, in particular the inherited situation in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was precarious and the ensuing [[Lithuanian Civil War (1432–1438)]] threatened Polish interests there. The conflict began when Władysław's paternal uncle, [[Švitrigaila]], refused to acknowledge [[fealty]] to his brother Jogaila and proclaimed political independence, jeopardising the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]].{{sfn|Kiaupienė|2008|pages=205–211}} He subsequently battled against Polish–Lithuanian forces in [[Volhynia]] and established an anti-Polish coalition.{{sfn|Sužiedėlis|1970–1978|pages=348–350}} In June 1431, he reached an agreement with the [[Teutonic State]], which declared a surprise war and marched its army into Polish territory.{{sfn|Gieysztor|1998|pages=734–735}} Following a [[truce]] with the [[Teutonic Knights]], the war resumed when Władysław became king. The situation swiftly transformed into a diplomatic struggle for Władysław and the Poles, who sought to turn Lithuanian nobles against Švitrigaila and have him ousted.{{sfn|Kiaupienė|2008|pages=205–211}} A Polish retinue of approximately 4,000 men under [[Jakub Kobylański]] assisted the Lithuanians headed by Sigismund Kęstutaitis and [[Michael Žygimantaitis]]; their joint army defeated Švitrigaila and his allies, [[Sigismund Korybut]] and the [[Livonian Order]], on 1 September 1435 at the [[Battle of Wiłkomierz]].{{sfn|Mačiukas|2015}} Švitrigaila fled eastward, but eventually lost the support of the [[Ruthenians]] residing in the Grand Duchy and went into exile to [[Moldavia]] in 1438, thus ending civil war.{{sfn|Sužiedėlis|1970–1978|pages=348–350}} However, unrest re-emerged when Sigismund Kęstutaitis was assassinated on 20 March 1440 and Władysław's younger brother, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon|Casimir]], was proclaimed Grand Duke by [[Jonas Goštautas]] and the [[Lithuanian Council of Lords]] on 29 June 1440.{{sfn|Sužiedėlis|2011|page=71}}{{sfn|Scott|2015|page=393}} This was met with hostility at the Polish court, especially that Casimir was underage and that the Poles hoped for a [[vicegerent]] that would submit to Poland.{{sfn|Scott|2015|page=393}} Regardless of the outcome, Władysław continued to use the title of Supreme Duke of Lithuania until death under the conditions of the 1413 [[Union of Horodło]].{{sfn|Mikulec|Polívka|2007|page=248}}{{sfn|Kiaupa|2000|pages=154–155}} The battle also proved momentous in combating the Livonian Order as its [[Livonian Order#Masters of the Livonian Order|Grand Master, Franco Kerskorff]], and [[Commander (order)|''komtur'' commanders]] were killed or taken prisoner.{{sfn|Kiaupienė|2008|pages=205–211}}{{sfn|Urban|2003|pages=311–313}} The [[Livonian Confederation]] agreement from 4 December 1435 officially terminated its crusading character, and a [[Peace of Brześć Kujawski|formal peace treaty was signed on 31 December 1435]] in [[Brześć Kujawski]] whereby the Teutonic and Livonian Orders pledged not to intrude or disturb the internal affairs of both Poland and Lithuania.{{sfn|Spórna|Wierzbicki|Wygonik|2004|page=468}}{{sfn|Błachowska|2009|page=325}} That act concluded the [[Polish–Teutonic War (1431–1435)]].{{sfn|Błachowska|2009|page=325}} Moreover, any association between the knights and the [[Pope]] or the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] would violate the treaty.{{sfn|Jasienica|1978|page=142}} His youth prvented Władysław from engaging directly in the peace talks, and the negotiations were predominantly undertaken by diplomats or the [[clergy]].{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=235}} ===Domestic and foreign policy, 1438–1440=== {{further|Hussite Wars}} [[File:Polish and Lithuanian Conflict with Prussia. 1377-1435..png|thumb|left|A map illustrating the borders of Poland, Lithuania and [[Prussia]], and the regions of [[Silesia]] and [[Pomerania]].]] The successive years were marked by the extirpation of Polish Hussites under the [[Edict of Wieluń]], signed earlier in 1424.{{sfn|Frost|2018|page=140}}{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|pages=235–236}} The initial hostilities eventually culminated in a minor rebellion during Władysław's reign.{{sfn|Bunar|Sroka|1996|page=90}} On 3 May 1439, Spytko of Melsztyn formed a small but armed [[ad hoc]] [[Confederation (Poland–Lithuania)|confederation]] in the town of [[Nowy Korczyn]] against Oleśnicki's desire to exterminate the Hussites and to challenge his authority over the young king.{{sfn|Bunar|Sroka|1996|page=90}} Consequently, Spytko was accused of [[high treason]] and maleficence.{{sfn|Jasienica|1978|page=155}} The cardinal sent crown troops to pacify the movement and execute the [[death warrant]].{{sfn|Jasienica|1978|page=155}} Spytko was ultimately killed at the [[Battle of Grotniki]].{{sfn|Jasienica|1978|page=155}}{{sfn|Związek Literatów Polskich|1961|page=70}} His corpse pierced with arrows laid bare in the field for three days, however, Władysław personally ordered Spytko's body to be returned to his widow and restored the family's noble status and privileges.{{sfn|Związek Literatów Polskich|1961|page=70}}{{sfn|Długosz|1869|page=563}} The court also devised the return of lost territories, most notably the southern [[Duchies of Silesia]], which continued to be ruled by the [[Silesian Piasts]].{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|pages=235–236}} In the north, the [[gentry]] of Greater Poland and [[Kuyavia]] demanded the recovery of [[Pomerania]].{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=236}} Speaking on behalf of Władysław, the cardinal was opposed to the idea of reclaiming Pomerania and believed that peace between Poland and the Teutonic Order was critical, as the Teutonic Knights were no longer a tool of the [[List of Holy Roman Emperors|Holy Roman Emperor]] and were wary of taking up arms.{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=236}} He also dedicated himself to subtler diplomatic measures when addressing the issue of [[Silesia]], a large historical region within the Bohemian Crown, but was unwilling to support the Hussites militarily against Sigismund of Luxembourg and his son-in-law, [[Albert II of Germany]].{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=236}} The priority was diverted towards stabilising domestic affairs as well as maintaining Poland's status as a great power and a pillar of the Catholic Church in [[East-Central Europe]].{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=236}} The union with Lithuania remained impregnable, and a [[dynastic union]] with the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] was to be formed, as Sigismund had no male heirs.{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=236}} The Polish Sejm and statesmen{{efn|Oleśnicki often spoke in the name of political leaders in the country.}} hoped that by marrying Władysław to one of Sigismund's granddaughters, Poland could secure his accession in Hungary and foist Jagiellonian rule there.{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=236}} That would restore a [[union of Hungary and Poland]], which had not been seen since the reign of [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis I of Anjou]] (1370–1382).{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=236}} The union would also allow Poland to renegotiate disputed territories between the Poles and the Hungarians, including [[Halych]] (later constituting [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]]) and Moldavia.{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=236}} In response, Poland would propose a military alliance and vow the expulsion of the [[Ottoman Turks]] from Hungarian lands.{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=236}} ===King of Hungary and Croatia, 1440=== {{further|Central Europe|Ottoman wars in Europe}} [[File:A Szent Korona elölről 2.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Holy Crown of Hungary]] was hidden from Władysław by [[Elizabeth of Luxembourg]] to prevent his coronation as King of Hungary.]] In October 1439, Albert II died and left the [[List of rulers of Austria|Austrian]], Bohemian and Hungarian thrones unoccupied.{{sfn|Ágoston|2023|page=64}} His only son, born in February 1440, became known as [[Ladislaus the Posthumous]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2023|page=64}} Ladislaus' claim to the [[Duchy of Austria]] was acknowledged in accordance with Albert's testament.{{sfn|Beller|2006|p=34}}{{sfn|Pálosfalvi|2002|p=143}} Under the influence and pressure of [[Oldřich II of Rosenberg]], the Catholic nobles were also inclined to endorse Ladislaus's hereditary right to Bohemia.{{sfn|Šmahel|2011|p=164}}{{sfn|Pálosfalvi|2002|p=143}} Conversely, the Hungarians were not willing to pass his candidacy and began dialogue with the Poles.{{sfn|Pálosfalvi|2002|p=143}} In early January 1440, the Hungarian Estates rejected the deceased king's testament at an assembly in [[Buda]] that would place the regency in the hands of [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III Habsburg]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2023|page=64}} The general animosity towards the [[Habsburg dynasty]] and the impending Ottoman threat prevented the Hungarians from accepting an infant as king and turned to Poland.{{sfn|Ágoston|2023|page=64}} Ladislaus' widowed mother, Queen [[Elizabeth of Luxembourg]], was desperate to halt that and sent intermediaries to persuade the Hungarians to terminate all negotiations with Władysław.{{sfn|Pálosfalvi|2002|p=143}} Contrary to her efforts, the Hungarian nobles proved resolute and elected Władysław king on 8 March 1440.{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=257}} Prior to his election, Władysław vowed to marry Elizabeth and protect her infant son's interests in Austria and Bohemia.{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=257}} Simultaneously, Władysław was made [[List of dukes and kings of Croatia|King of Croatia]] as the Croatian dominion was in a [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|personal union with Hungary]] since 1102.{{sfn|Davis|2024|page=15}} Elizabeth did not approve of the Estates' election, and on 15 May 1440, she had her son crowned with the [[Holy Crown of Hungary]], which one of Elizabeth's [[lady in waiting|ladies-in-waiting]] ([[Helene Kottanner]]) had stolen from safekeeping at the fortress of [[Visegrád]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2023|page=64}} The Hungarians soon decried the ceremony as an unlawful farce and utilised a reliquary crown for Władysław's coronation on 17 July 1440 at the [[Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary]] in [[Székesfehérvár]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2023|pages=64–65}} He had also received significant support from [[Pope Eugene IV]], in exchange for his help in organising an anti-Muslim [[crusade]].{{sfn|Stone|2014|page=22}} Although still young and king solely by title, Władysław became deeply involved in the struggle against the Ottomans, having been brought up in the standard of a pious [[Christianity|Christian]] monarch. ===Discord and unrest, 1440–1442=== {{further|List of wars involving Hungary}} [[File:Thuróczy krónika - Hunyadi János.jpg|thumb|right|[[John Hunyadi]], who supported Władysław's claim to the Hungarian throne and aided him militarily. Depiction from the ''[[Chronica Hungarorum]]'', 1488.]] Shortly after Władysław's accession the conflict with the supporters of Elizabeth deepened.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=71}} The western and northern parts of the country remained on the side of the queen and opposing [[magnate]]s, chiefly the [[Counts of Celje]] (Cilli), the [[Garai family]] and [[Dénes Szécsi|Dénes Szécsi, Archbishop of Esztergom]].{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=71}} In turn, the eastern regions and [[Transylvania]] upheld Władysław and his partisans, among them [[John Hunyadi]] who became a leading political and military figure in Hungary.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|pages=71–72}} In order to assert her claim, Elizabeth had to maintain the wealthy mining counties in what now constitutes [[Slovakia]] and hired Hussite [[mercenaries]] from Bohemia commanded by [[John Jiskra of Brandýs|John Jiskra]].{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=72}} Jiskra undertook a quick campaign and occupied much of the fortresses and defensive posts in northern Hungary, often with the support of local populations and devotees that held Jiskra in high regard because of his fight for religious freedoms.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=72}} As a benefactor to the mercenaries, Elizabeth had to pawn the Holy Crown and transfer tutelage over her newborn son to Frederick III.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=72}} However, this proved insufficient to fund the war against Władysław; she was then forced to handover her privately owned Austrian estates and the Hungarian [[Sopron County|County]] of [[Sopron]] to the Habsburgs in late 1440 and early 1441.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=72}} This conduct alienated many of the lords that initially supported Elizabeth's cause, including [[Nicholas of Ilok]], [[Ban of Croatia]], who switched sides and allied himself with Władysław and John Hunyadi.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=72}} The western territories as well as some 70 fortresses under [[Ulrich II, Count of Celje]] in modern-day Austria, Croatia and [[Slovenia]] remained stalwart and loyal to the queen.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=72}} Before the end of 1440, Hunyadi attacked [[Győr]] but was unable to take the garrisoned city.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=73}} He was, however, successful in capturing local townships and villages around Buda and Székesfehérvár to prevent the escape of nobles and designated traitors.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=73}} This proved paramount when Ulrich II made an attempt to flee to [[Bratislava]] (Pozsony); he was caught by a Polish detachment and subsequently imprisoned at Władysław's behest.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|page=73}} Concurrently, [[Ladislaus Garai]] instigated a rebellion in the south.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|pages=73–74}} Hunyadi, together with Nicholas of Ilok, annihilated Garai's army at [[Bátaszék]] on 10 September 1440.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|pages=73–74}} In January 1441, Ulrich was released from captivity, pledged an oath of loyalty to Władysław and freed the hostages held by his troops.{{sfn|Museranu|2018|pages=73–74}} Elizabeth prolonged her resistance until December 1442, when a peace treaty was signed at Győr under the auspices of Cardinal [[Julian Cesarini]].{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=239}} Elizabeth died not long after meeting Władysław and exchanging gifts; her supporters claimed that she was poisoned on his orders to prevent their marriage.{{sfn|Setton|1969|page=287}} Cesarini had the treaty ratified by Frederick under the pressure of Pope Eugene, though Frederick abstained from doing so until May 1444.{{sfn|Setton|1969|page=287}} The internal unrest caused Hungary to become vulnerable militarily and was severely weakened for the Turkish campaign.{{sfn|Reddaway|Penson|Halecki|Dyboski|1950|page=239}} ===Crusade against the Muslim Ottomans, 1443–1444=== {{further|Crusade of Varna}} [[File:Battle of Varna 1444.PNG|thumb|250px|Władysław III at the [[Battle of Varna]], as imagined by [[Jan Matejko]].]] The prelude to the crusade began when the Turks were defeated in the [[Hungarian–Ottoman War (1437–1442)|Hungarian–Ottoman War of 1437–1442]] and temporarily lost jurisdiction over the [[Principality of Wallachia]].{{sfn|Setton|1969|pages=287–288}} In 1442, Sultan [[Murad II]] sent [[Mezid Bey]] into Transylvania with a large [[akinji]] army, raiding cities, towns and villages from the border to [[Sibiu]] (known in German as Hermannstadt and in Hungarian as Nagyszeben).{{sfn|Setton|1969|pages=287–288}} Hunyadi initially lost the skirmish and one of the Hungarian leaders, Bishop [[György Lépes]], was killed at [[Sântimbru, Alba]].{{sfn|Setton|1969|pages=287–288}} However, a few days later Hunyadi regrouped and attacked Ottoman positions with heavy cavalry at the [[Battle of Hermannstadt]], capturing and beheading Mezid.{{sfn|Setton|1969|pages=287–288}}{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=285}} This empowered Hungary to coerce the Wallachians and Moldavians to change loyalty and turn into the vassals of Hungary. Murad sought revenge and entrusted [[Hadım Şehabeddin]], governor-general of [[Rumelia]], with a new force to enter Wallachia; he too was defeated by Hunyadi near the [[Ialomița River]].{{sfn|Giurescu|Matei|1976|page=88}} Throughout the autumn of 1442, Cesarini and the [[Republic of Venice]] were planning a crusade against the Turks, with the papacy pledging patronage and considerable funding.{{sfn|Setton|1969|page=288}} The united force would set out from Hungary with an assembled fleet under [[Francesco Condulmer]] stationed at the [[Dardanelles Strait]].{{sfn|Setton|1969|page=288}}{{sfn|Malone-Lee|2023}} The objective was to isolate routes and communication from [[Anatolia]] to Europe, protect [[Constantinople]], and join with the land troops to capture Turkish defensive posts on the [[River Danube]], thus leaving the Ottoman main army caught in Anatolia.{{sfn|Setton|1969|page=288}} Cesarini, acting as papal legate and gathering support, disseminated slogans and propaganda that would incite the Christian army to act.{{sfn|Malone-Lee|2023}} Moreover, Italian humanist [[Francesco Filelfo]] wrote a personal letter to Władysław, describing him in Latin as the ''propugnaculum'', or the "[[Bastion|bulwark]] of Christianity".{{sfn|Piechocki|2021|pages=95–96}} On the other hand, [[Vlad II Dracul]] tried to dissuade Władysław from waging war against the Ottomans.{{sfn|Cazacu|2017|page=43}} Nevertheless, Vlad Dracul provided 7,000 (according to some accounts 4,000){{sfn|Treptow|2022}} horsemen under the command of his son, [[Mircea II of Wallachia|Mircea]], to fight against the Ottomans.{{sfn|Cazacu|2017|page=43}} [[File:Stanisław von Chlebowski - Death of Władysław Jagiellon near Varna - MNK II-a-280 - National Museum in Kraków.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Władysław at Varna, as imagined by [[Stanisław Chlebowski]].]] [[File:Gouldgulden Wladyslawa III Warnenczyka.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[guilder]] featuring Władysław's effigy and coat of arms]] On 15 April 1444, at the [[Diet of Hungary|diet in Buda]] and in the presence of Cardinal Cesarini, Władysław swore to renew the war against Turkish infidels in the coming summer.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=82}} Similar promises were made to the Venetian delegates, the [[Signoria of Florence]] and to the [[Kingdom of Bosnia]].{{sfn|Setton|1976|pages=82–83}} [[Philip the Good|Philip the Good of Burgundy]] was also a generous benefactor to the Christian cause.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=86}} Simultaneously, Władysław engaged [[Stojka Gisdanić]] and dispatched him to [[Edirne]] as an envoy and mediator in peace talks with the Ottomans.{{sfn|Setton|1976|pages=82–83}} In June 1444, the fleet of Francesco Condulmer and [[Alvise Loredan]] was ready to sail and by mid-July arrived at [[Methoni, Messenia]], in modern-day [[Greece]].{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=86}} Murad already crossed into [[Asia Minor]] by this time and the fleet was tasked with preventing re-entry by holding the strait against him.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=86}} In August, a Polish assembly at [[Piotrków Trybunalski|Piotrków]] implored him to make peace with the Ottomans, dissatisfied with the level of taxes raised for the war and believing that Murad's terms could be lucrative.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=86}} The Poles were convinced that this would encourage Władysław to leave the [[Balkans]], return to Poland and re-establish himself there as king.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}} Meanwhile, Cesarini sent letters of progress to [[Cyriacus of Ancona]], who was staying in Constantinople; he then translated them from Latin into [[Greek language|Greek]] for [[John VIII Palaiologos]], [[Byzantine emperor]].{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}} The Byzantines were ecstatic of the news brought by Cesarini, as were the [[Genoese colonies]] and Pera ([[Galata]]).{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}} Cyriacus also distributed letters to [[Naples|Neapolitan]] nobility and to [[Alfonso V of Aragon]], urging them to join the campaign.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}} The victory of [[Jean de Lastic]] and his [[Knights Hospitaller]] in the [[Siege of Rhodes (1444)|Siege of Rhodes]] contributed to the general euphoria surrounding the crusade.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}} In mid-August 1444, the [[Peace of Szeged]] was ratified in [[Oradea]] (Várad).{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=83}} However, Władysław [[abjure]]d his oath and the war continued; on 20 September 1444 the king and Hunyadi crossed the Danube, beginning the army's march to the shores of the [[Black Sea]] to make contact with the allied fleet.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=88}} The Pope annulled and released [[Gjergj Arianiti]] from peace he made with the Turks; Arianiti was then able to march with his troops to [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and fight alongside the Christians if required.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=88}} At this time, Murad concluded a favourable peace treaty with [[Ibrahim II of Karaman]], who threatened Anatolia from the south.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=89}} It allowed the Turks to focus their attention and resources on advancing into Europe; in late October 1444 he crossed the [[Bosphorus]] while the Christian fleet was stalled from adverse winds, and the Venetians did not make an effort to prevent that.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=89}} Scholar [[Poggio Bracciolini]] appraised that as the true cause of the crusade's early failure.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=89}} Genoese merchants and sailors were also accused of [[corruption]] and accepting bribes from Murad.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=89}} According to witnesses, the Ottoman troops outnumbered the combined Christian forces and quickly marched to the Black Sea without a delay.{{sfn|Setton|1976|pages=89–90}} ===Death at Varna and succession, 1444=== {{further|Battle of Varna}} [[File:Murad II and Władysław III of Poland.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Imaginary Ottoman miniature depicting Murad II and Władysław III's beheading, held at [[Topkapı Palace]].]] The Venetian treachery placed the large Ottoman army of around 60,000 men in proximity to the unsuspecting 16,000 crusaders, almost outnumbering the Christians by three to one.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=90}} The crusader fleet, largely manned by Venetian mercenaries and sailors, did not engage in direct combat and desisted from sailing into the Black Sea.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=90}} Thereafter, the [[Battle of Varna|battle]] began on 10 November 1444 at [[Varna, Bulgaria]]; the crusaders were initially successful in defending against Ottoman assaults and Murad sustained heavy losses.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=90}} Acts of [[heroism]] were abundant on the Christian side, almost making up for the lack of men; as was the courage displayed on the battlefield by John Hunyadi.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=90}} Murad was wary of the battle at first and contemplated escaping when the crusaders took the left flank, but the [[Janissaries]] restrained him.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=90}}{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|pages=463–464}} Hunyadi is purported to have proposed that the Christian left assists the right flank to move the Turks out of position, and stated that "the son of Osman's army shall be defeated".{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=464}} The Ottoman troops under Hadım Şehabeddin of Rumelia began to break and some fled the battle, though the Turkish resistance was fierce.{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=464}} One of the crusaders, Andreas de Pallatio, later wrote in his memoirs that Władysław seized the initiative on the Christian right flank and tore into Şehabeddin's ranks like "a new [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]", pushing the Rumelians up the valley's slope.{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=464}} Many of the novice yet still elite Janissaries and [[azeb]]s were driven back.{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|pages=465–466}} Pallatio also notes that the size of Murad's army was too great to counter and it seemed as if the Christian offensive barely inflicted any major casualties.{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=465}} Władysław's men quickly became exhausted, with many wounded by arrows and battered, including Hunyadi.{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=465}} In spite of this, the majority of the Ottoman army either fled or was dead.{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=466}} Consequently, Murad decided to seek refuge in his fortified encampment in the rear.{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=466}} Facing desperate circumstances and seeing Hunyadi's struggle against the Rumelian [[sipahi]]s, Władysław decided to take a chance by directly charging the sultan's camp and his armed retinue with [[heavy cavalry]].{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=466}} Few men were able to see the charge and no one returned from the assault, which alarmed the crusaders.{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=467}} The young king was most certainly killed when his charge lost impetus and came to a standstill amongst the unyielding Janissaries protecting the sultan. It is possible that the king's horse fell into a trap; [[Pope Pius II]] writes that Władysław might have been dismounted from his horse by the Turks.{{sfn|Pope Pius II|2013|pages=87–88}} The Janissaries then killed the king's bodyguard, beheaded Władysław and displayed his head on a lance, spear or pole.{{sfn|Pope Pius II|2013|pages=87–88}}{{sfn|Setton|1969|page=310}}{{sfn|Shirogorov|2021|page=40}} Records mention a severed male head candied in a bowl of honey by the Turks, but the head contained [[blonde]] hair, and Władysław was a [[brunette]].{{sfn|Shirogorov|2021|page=40}} Disheartened by the death of the king, the Hungarian Army fled the battlefield, and the remainder surrendered. On his return, Hunyadi tried frantically to salvage the king's body; neither Władysław's body nor his armour were ever found.{{sfn|Besala|2003|page=98}} Władysław was succeeded in Poland by his younger brother, Duke [[Casimir IV Jagiellon|Casimir IV]] of Lithuania, in 1447, after a three-year [[interregnum]].{{sfn|Topolski|1986|page=58}} In Hungary, he was succeeded by his former rival, the child-king [[Ladislaus the Posthumous]].{{sfn|Topolski|1986|page=58}}
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