Editing Toledo, Spain (section)

===Middle Ages===
[[File:España - Toledo - Baño Árabe 001.JPG|thumb|[[Baños de Tenerías]], one of the Muslim baths in the city]]
Following the Umayyad conquest, invaders were ethnically diverse, and available evidence suggests that in the area of Toledo (locally known as {{Langx|ar|طُلَيْطِلَة|Ṭulayṭilah}} under Islamic rule), [[Berbers|Berber]] settlement predominated over [[Arab]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Roger |title=Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797 |date=1989 |publisher=Blackwell |page=195}}</ref> In 742, the Berbers in Al-Andalus rebelled against the Arab Umayyad governors. They took control of the north and unsuccessfully laid siege to the city.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797|date=1989|publisher=Blackwell|pages=108–110|edition=Paperback 1994}}</ref>

The city retained its importance as a literary and ecclesiastical centre well into the mid-8th century, as the [[Chronicle of 754]] demonstrated.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797|date=1989|publisher=Blackwell|pages=57–80|edition=Paperback 1994}}</ref> During this period, several letters show of the primacy that the church of Toledo held.{{Refn|group=n.|"Not only were its clerics still well enough equipped in intellectual terms to provide authoritative guidance on a wide range of ecclesiastical discipline and doctrine, but this was also actively sought."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797|date=1989|publisher=Blackwell|page=72|edition=Paperback 1994}}</ref>}}

Under the Umayyad [[Emirate of Cordoba]], Toledo was the centre of numerous insurrections against the Cordobese government from 761 to 857.<ref>Roger Collins, ''Early Medieval Spain: Unity in Diversity, 400–1000'', (St. Martin's Press, 1995), 187.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Roger |title=Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797 |date=1989 |publisher=Blackwell |edition=Paperback 1994 |page=172, 201–203}}</ref> Girbib ibn-Abdallah, a poet from Toledo, wrote verses against the Umayyads, helping to inspire a revolt in the city against the new emir in 797.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797|date=1989|publisher=Blackwell|pages=209–210|edition=Paperback 1994}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031|date=2014|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|pages=32–33|edition=Paperback 2014}}</ref> By the end of the 8th century, the Umayyads had made Toledo the administrative center of the [[Central March]] of Al-Andalus.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031|date=2014|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|pages=27–28|edition=Paperback 2014}}</ref><!--[[File:View of Toledo, AD 976.jpg|thumb|270x270px|Depiction of ''people from Toledo'' in AD 976, from the 10th-century [[Codex Vigilanus]].]]--> In 852, a new revolt broke out in Toledo. The Umayyad governor was held hostage to secure the return of Toledan hostages held in Córdoba. In reprisal for a prior attack by Toledans, emir [[Muhammad I of Córdoba|Muhammad I]] sent an army to attack them, but was defeated. Toledo allied with King [[Ordoño I]] of Asturias. They fought together at the Battle of Guadacelete but lost. Later in 857, the Toledans attacked [[Talavera de la Reina|Talavera]] but were again defeated. In 859, Muhammad I negotiated a truce with Toledo. Though locked in conflict with neighboring cities, the city became virtually independent for twenty years. Cordobese authorities re-asserted control over Toledo in 873, after the successful Umayyad siege on the city, which forced defenders to submit.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031|date=2014|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|pages=43–44, 47|edition=Paperback 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031|date=2014|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|pages=79–81|edition=Paperback 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031|date=2014|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|page=171|edition=Paperback 2014}}</ref> The [[Banu Qasi]] gained nominal control of Toledo until 920. A new period of unruliness followed in the 920 and 930s,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Roger|title=Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031|date=2014|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|page=145|edition=Paperback 2014}}</ref> until Caliph [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] captured the city in 932 after an extensive siege.<ref>Ann Christys, ''Christians in Al-Andalus 711–1000'', (Curzon Press, 2002), 20.</ref>
[[File:Location map Taifa of Toledo.svg|thumb|Territory controlled by the Taifa of Toledo circa 1037]]
In the wake of the early 11th-century [[Fitna of al-Andalus]], Toledo became the centre of an independent polity, the so-called [[Taifa of Toledo]], under the rule of the [[Dhulnunid dynasty|Dhu l-Nunid]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://al-qantara.revistas.csic.es/index.php/al-qantara/article/view/402/397|page=17|title=The emergence of the Taifa Kingdom of Toledo|first=David J.|last=Wasserstein|volume=21|issue=1|year=2000|journal=Al Qantara|publisher=[[Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas]]|location=Madrid|doi=10.3989/alqantara.2000.v21.i1.402|s2cid=159516994 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The population of Toledo at this time was about 28,000, including a Jewish population of 4,000.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reilly|first1=Bernard F.|title=Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031–1157|date=1992|publisher=Blackwell|pages=5, 9, 15|edition=1995 paperback}}</ref> The [[Mozarab]] community had its own Christian bishop. The ''[[taifa]]'' was centered on the [[Tagus]] and bordered [[Sierra de Guadarrama]], [[Guadalajara, Castilla-La Mancha|Guadalajara]], [[Medinaceli]], the Taifa of Valencia and the [[Montes de Toledo|Mountains of Toledo]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reilly|first1=Bernard F.|title=Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031–1157|date=1992|publisher=Blackwell|pages=6–7|edition=1995 paperback}}</ref>

The taifa, however, fell into political disarray, owing to the economic draining caused by the ''[[parias]]'' (tributes) imposed by the [[Kingdom of León]] as well as territorial mutilations, and so a revolt erupted in 1079, which was followed by the [[Aftasid dynasty|Aftasid]] ruler of [[Badajoz]] taking control of the city.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://raco.cat/index.php/ImagoTemporis/article/view/292993/381434/|journal=Imago Temporis: Medium Aevum|year=2013|title=En los orígenes del cruzadismo peninsular: el reinado de Alfonso VI (1065-1109)|first=Carlos de|last=Ayala|pages=499–537 |doi=10.21001/imagotemporis.v0i0.292993|location=Lleida|publisher=[[University of Lleida|Universitat de Lleida]]|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}</ref>

On 25 May 1085, [[Siege of Toledo (1085)|Alfonso VI of León took Toledo]] and established direct personal control over the city from which he had been exacting tribute. Around that time, the city's demographics featured a heterogeneous composition, with Mozarabs, Muslims, and Jews, to which incoming Christians from northern Iberia and Frankish elements were added. Initially, therefore, different ''[[fuero]]s'' were simultaneously in force for each community.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/25677/1/Historia_Medieval_17_14.pdf|page=433|title=La (re)conquista cristiana de Toledo: un estudio sobre los nuevos patrones de ordenamiento del territorio y sus habitantes|first=María de la Paz|last=Estevez|doi=10.14198/medieval.2011.17.14|issue=17|year=2011|journal=Anales de la Universidad de Alicante. Historia Medieval|issn=0212-2480|publisher=[[University of Alicante|Universidad de Alicante]]}}</ref> After the Christian conquest, the city's Mozarab community grew by immigration from the Muslim south.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reilly|first1=Bernard F.|title=Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031–1157|date=1992|publisher=Blackwell|page=20|edition=1995 paperback}}</ref>

Toledo preserved its status as a cultural centre. A tag-team [[Toledo School of Translators|translation centre]] was established in which books in Arabic or Hebrew would be translated into Castilian by Muslim and Jewish scholars, and from Castilian into Latin by Castilian scholars, thus letting long-lost knowledge spread through Christian Europe again. Under the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo]], multiple persecutions (633, 653, 693) and stake burnings of Jews (638) occurred; the [[Kingdom of Toledo (Crown of Castile)|Kingdom of Toledo]] followed up on this tradition with forced conversions and mass murder (1368, 1391, 1449, 1486–1490) and rioting and bloodbath against the Jews of Toledo (1212).<ref name=STR-JewishPersecution>{{cite web|last1=Grosser|first1=P.E. and E.G. Halperin|title=Jewish Persecution – History of AntiSemitism – Lesser Known Highlights of Jewish International Relations in the Common Era|url=http://www.simpletoremember.com/articles/a/HistoryJewishPersecution/|website=simpletoremember.com|publisher=SimpleToRemember.com – Judaism Online|access-date=6 February 2015}}</ref><ref name=GrosserHalperin>{{cite book|last1=Grosser|first1=Paul E.|last2=Halperin|first2=Edwin G.|last3=foreword by St. John|first3=Robert|last4=preface by Littell|first4=Franklin H.|title=Anti-Semitism : the causes and effectos of a prejudice|date=1979|publisher=Citadel Press|location=Secaucus, N.J.|isbn=978-0806507033|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1wIAAAAIAAJ&q=Anti-Semitism:+Causes+%26+Effects+of+a+Prejudice+629|access-date=6 February 2015}}</ref>

A major popular revolt erupted in 1449, with elements of tax mutiny, anti-Jewish and anti-[[converso]] sentiment, and appeals to the civic community, eventually expanding from an urban revolt to anti-seigneurial riots in countryside settlements outside the city.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/132824/1/Historia-Medieval_24_06.pdf|journal=Anales de la Universidad de Alicante. Historia Medieval|issue=24|year=2023|pages=117–150|doi=10.14198/medieval.23139|title=La violencia de la comunidad. Movilizaciones colectivas, luchas antiseñoriales y control del territorio en la sublevación de Toledo de 1449|first=Óscar|last=López Gómez|location=San Vicente del Raspeig|publisher=[[University of Alicante|Universidad de Alicante]]}}</ref>