Editing Theology (section)

==In religion==
The term ''theology'' has been deemed by some as only appropriate to the study of [[religion]]s that worship a supposed [[deity]] (a ''theos''), i.e. more widely than [[monotheism]]; and presuppose a belief in the ability to speak and [[reason]] about this deity (in ''[[logia]]''). They suggest the term is less appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently (i.e., religions without a single deity, or that deny that such subjects can be studied logically). ''[[Hierology]]'' has been proposed, by such people as [[Eugène Goblet d'Alviella]] (1908), as an alternative, more generic term.<ref>Jones, Alan H. 1983. ''Independence and Exegesis: The Study of Early Christianity in the Work of Alfred Loisy (1857–1940), Charles Guignebert (1857 [i.e. 1867]–1939), and Maurice Goguel (1880–1955)''. [[Mohr Siebeck]]. p. 194.</ref>

=== Abrahamic religions ===

====Christianity====
{{Main|Christian theology|Neoplatonism}}
{{Further|Diversity in early Christian theology|Great Apostasy|Nontrinitarianism|Son of God (Christianity)|Trinity}}
[[File:Carlo Crivelli 007.jpg|thumb|[[Thomas Aquinas]], an influential [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] theologian|upright]]
As defined by [[Thomas Aquinas]], theology is constituted by a triple aspect: what is taught by God, teaches of God, and leads to God ({{langx|la|Theologia a Deo docetur, Deum docet, et ad Deum ducit}}).<ref>{{cite book |last=Kapic |first=Kelly M. Kapic |title=A Little Book for New Theologians. Why and How to Study Theology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hg6X6d0n7NUC |year=2012 |publisher=[[InterVarsity Press]] |location=[[Downers Grove, Illinois]] |isbn=978-0830866700 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hg6X6d0n7NUC&dq=%22Theologia+a+Deo+docetur,+Deum+docet,+et+ad+Deum+ducit%22%22seem+to+be+a+gathered+summary+of+what+Thomas+says+in+Summa+Theologica%22&pg=PA36 36]}}</ref> This indicates the three distinct areas of God as [[theophany|theophanic]] [[revelation]], the systematic study of the nature of [[Divinity|divine]] and, more generally, of [[religious belief]], and the [[spiritual path]]. Christian theology as the study of Christian belief and practice concentrates primarily upon the texts of the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]] as well as on Christian tradition. Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis and argument. Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian better understand Christian tenets, to make comparisons between Christianity and other traditions, to defend Christianity against objections and criticism, to facilitate reforms in the Christian church, to assist in the propagation of Christianity, to draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or need, or for a variety of other reasons.

====Islam====
[[File:Imam Mālik ibn Anas, Sayr mulhimah min al-Sharq wa-al-Gharb.png|thumb|Islamic scholar, jurist and theologian [[Malik ibn Anas]]]]
{{Main|Aqidah}}
{{Further|Kalam|List of Muslim theologians|Schools of Islamic theology}}
Islamic theological discussion that parallels Christian theological discussion is called ''[[Kalam]]''; the Islamic analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be the investigation and elaboration of ''[[Sharia]]'' or ''[[Fiqh]]''.<ref>Gardet, L. 1999. "[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ei2/kalam.htm Ilm al-kalam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202100/http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ei2/kalam.htm |date=3 March 2016 }}." ''[[The Encyclopedia of Islam]]'', edited by [[P. J. Bearman]], et al. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Koninklijke Brill NV]].</ref>

{{blockquote|Kalam...does not hold the leading place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for 'theology' in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam.|author=translated by L. Gardet|title=|source=}}

Some Universities in Germany established departments of islamic theology. (i.e.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deutsche-islam-konferenz.de/SharedDocs/Meldungen/EN/rede-kerber-festveranstaltung.html?nn=598848|title=Speech by State Secretary Dr Markus Kerber at the official opening ceremony for the Islamkolleg Deutschland|website=DIK – Deutsche Islam Konferenz|access-date=31 January 2023|archive-date=31 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131143038/https://www.deutsche-islam-konferenz.de/SharedDocs/Meldungen/EN/rede-kerber-festveranstaltung.html?nn=598848|url-status=live}}</ref>)

====Judaism====
[[File:Maimònides.jpg|thumb|right|Sculpture of the Jewish theologian [[Maimonides]]|upright]]
{{Main|Jewish theology}}
In Jewish theology, the historical absence of political authority has meant that most theological reflection has happened within the context of the Jewish community and [[synagogue]], including through [[rabbinical]] discussion of [[Jewish law]] and [[Midrash]] (rabbinic biblical commentaries). Jewish theology is also linked to [[ethics]], as it is the case with theology in other religions, and therefore has implications for how one behaves.<ref>Libenson, Dan and Lex Rofeberg, hosts. 5 October 2018. "[http://www.judaismunbound.com/podcast/judaism-unbound-episode-138-rachel-adler God and Gender – Rachel Adler] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011053734/http://www.judaismunbound.com/podcast/judaism-unbound-episode-138-rachel-adler |date=11 October 2018 }}." Ep. 138 in ''Judaism Unbound'' (podcast).</ref><ref>Rashkover, Randi. 1999. "[https://archive.today/20120709141057/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2096/is_4_49/ai_58621576 A Call for Jewish Theology]." ''[[CrossCurrents]]''. "Frequently the claim is made that, unlike Christianity, Judaism is a tradition of deeds and maintains no strict theological tradition. Judaism's fundamental beliefs are inextricable from their halakhic observance (that set of laws revealed to Jews by God), embedded and presupposed by that way of life as it is lived and learned."</ref>

===Indian religions===

====Buddhism====
{{Further|Buddhist philosophy|Trikāya}}
Some academic inquiries within [[Buddhism]], dedicated to the investigation of a Buddhist understanding of the world, prefer the designation [[Buddhist philosophy]] to the term ''Buddhist theology'', since Buddhism [[Creator in Buddhism|lacks the same conception of a ''theos'' or a Creator God]]. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of ''theology'' is in fact appropriate, can only do so, he says, because "I take theology not to be restricted to discourse on God.... I take 'theology' not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God."<ref>Cabezon, Jose Ignacio. 1999. "Buddhist Theology in the Academy." pp. 25–52 in ''Buddhist Theology: Critical Reflections by Contemporary Buddhist Scholars'', edited by R. Jackson and [[John Makransky|J. J. Makransky]]. London: Routledge.</ref> 

Whatever the case, there are various Buddhist theories and discussions on the nature of [[Buddhahood]] and the [[ultimate reality]] / highest form of [[divinity]], which has been termed "buddhology" by some scholars like [[Louis de La Vallée-Poussin]].<ref name=":4">de la Vallée Poussin, Louis. (1906). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/xxxi-studies-in-buddhist-dogma1-the-three-bodies-of-a-buddha-trikaya/5E32D32D56482F9A1A5219F5E1EFDFC7 "XXXI. Studies in Buddhist Dogma. The Three Bodies of a Buddha (Trikāya).''"''] ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 38(4), 943–977.'' doi:10.1017/S0035869X0003522X</ref> This is a different usage of the term than when it is taken to mean the [[Buddhist studies|academic study of Buddhism]], and here would refer to the study of the nature of what a Buddha is. In [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]], a central concept in its buddhology is the doctrine of the three Buddha bodies (Sanskrit: [[Trikaya|Trikāya]]).<ref name=":4" /> This doctrine is shared by all Mahayana Buddhist traditions.  

====Hinduism====
{{See also|Vedanta|Vaishnavism|Shaivism|Shaktism}}
Within [[Hindu philosophy]], there are numerous traditions of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God (termed [[Brahman]], [[Paramatma]], [[Ishvara]], and/or [[Bhagavan]] in some schools of Hindu thought) and of the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|''ātman'']] (soul). The [[Sanskrit]] word for the various schools of Hindu philosophy is ''[[darśana]]'' ('view, viewpoint'), the most influential one in terms of modern Hindu religion is [[Vedanta]] and its various sub-schools, each of which presents a different theory of [[Ishvara]] (the Supreme lord, God).

[[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava theology]] has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars in [[India]] for centuries. A large part of its study lies in classifying and organizing the manifestations of thousands of gods and their aspects. In recent decades the study of Hinduism has also been taken up by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the [[Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies]] and [[Bhaktivedanta College]].<ref>King, Anna S. 2006. "For Love of Krishna: Forty Years of Chanting." pp. 134–67 in ''The Hare Krishna Movement: Forty Years of Chant and Change'', edited by G. Dwyer and R. J. Cole. London: [[I.B. Tauris]]. p. 163:

Describes developments in both institutions, and speaks of Hare Krishna devotees "studying Vaishnava theology and practice in mainstream universities."</ref> 

There are also other traditions of Hindu theology, including the various theologies of [[Shaivism]] (which include dualistic and [[Nondualism|non-dualistic]] strands) as well as the theologies of the Goddess centered [[Shaktism|Shakta traditions]] which posit a feminine deity as the ultimate.

===Other religions===
====Shinto====
In Japan, the term ''theology'' ({{Langx|ja|神学|translit=shingaku|label=none}}) has been ascribed to [[Shinto]] since the [[Edo period]] with the publication of Mano Tokitsuna's {{Transliteration|ja|Kokon shingaku ruihen}} ({{Langx|ja|古今神学類編|lit=categorized compilation of ancient theology|label=none}}). In modern times, other terms are used to denote studies in Shinto—as well as Buddhist—belief, such as {{Transliteration|ja|kyōgaku}} ({{Langx|ja|教学|lit=doctrinal studies|label=none}}) and {{Transliteration|ja|shūgaku}} ({{Langx|ja|宗学|lit=denominational studies|label=none}}).

====Modern Paganism====
English academic [[Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar)|Graham Harvey]] has commented that [[Paganism|Pagans]] "rarely indulge in theology".<ref>{{cite book|last=Harvey |first=Graham|author-link=Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar)|title=Listening People, Speaking Earth: Contemporary Paganism|date=2007|publisher=London: Hurst & Company|isbn=978-1850652724|edition=2nd|page=1}}</ref> Nevertheless, theology has been applied in some sectors across contemporary Pagan communities, including [[Wicca]], [[Heathenry (new religious movement)|Heathenry]], [[Druidry (modern)|Druidry]] and [[Kemetism]]. As these religions have given precedence to [[orthopraxy]], theological views often vary among adherents. The term is used by Christine Kraemer in her book ''Seeking The Mystery: An Introduction to Pagan Theologies'' and by [[Michael York (religious studies scholar)|Michael York]] in [[Pagan Theology|''Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion'']].