Editing The Anarchy (section)

==Road to war==
===New regime (1135–1138)===
Stephen had to intervene in the north of England immediately after his coronation.<ref name=King2010P52/> [[David I of Scotland]], brother of Henry I's first queen and maternal uncle of Matilda, invaded the north on the news of Henry's death, taking [[Carlisle]], [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] and other key strongholds.<ref name=King2010P52/> Northern England was a disputed territory at this time, with the Scottish kings laying a traditional claim to [[Cumberland]], and David also claiming [[Northumbria]] by virtue of his marriage to the daughter of the former Anglo-Saxon earl [[Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria|Waltheof]].<ref name="Carpenter, p.165">Carpenter, p.165.</ref> Stephen rapidly marched north with an army and met David at [[Durham, England|Durham]].<ref name=King2010P53>King (2010), p.53.</ref> An agreement was made under which David would return most of the territory he had taken, with the exception of Carlisle. In return, Stephen confirmed David's son [[Henry, Earl of Northumbria|Prince Henry]]'s possessions in England, including the [[Earldom of Huntingdon]].<ref name=King2010P53/>

Returning south, Stephen held his first royal court at Easter 1136.<ref>King (2010), p.57.</ref> A wide range of nobles gathered at Westminster for the event, including many of the Anglo-Norman barons and most of the higher officials of the church.<ref>King (2010), pp.57–60; Davis, p.22.</ref> Stephen issued a new royal charter, confirming the promises he had made to the church, promising to reverse Henry's policies on the [[royal forest]]s and to reform any abuses of the royal legal system.<ref>Carpenter, p.167.</ref> Stephen portrayed himself as the natural successor to Henry I's policies, and reconfirmed the existing seven earldoms in the kingdom on their existing holders.<ref>White (2000), p.78.</ref> The Easter court was a lavish event, and a large amount of money was spent on the event itself, clothes and gifts.<ref>Crouch (2002), p.250.</ref> Stephen gave out grants of land and favours to those present, and endowed numerous church foundations with land and privileges.<ref>Crouch (2008a), p.29; King (2010), pp.54–55.</ref> Stephen's accession to the throne still needed to be ratified by the Pope, and Henry of Blois appears to have been responsible for ensuring that testimonials of support were sent from Stephen's elder brother Theobald and from the French king Louis VI, to whom Stephen represented a useful balance to Angevin power in the north of France.<ref>Crouch (2008b), pp.46–47.</ref> [[Pope Innocent II]] confirmed Stephen as king by letter later that year, and Stephen's advisers circulated copies widely around England to demonstrate Stephen's legitimacy.<ref>Crouch (2002), pp.248–249.</ref>

[[File:Stephen bird.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A medieval painting of King Stephen holding a hunting bird|14th century depiction of King Stephen with a [[Falconry|hunting bird]]]]
Troubles continued across Stephen's new kingdom. After the Welsh victory at the [[Battle of Llwchwr]] in January 1136 and the successful ambush of [[Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare]] in April, south Wales rose in rebellion, starting in east [[Glamorgan]] and rapidly spreading across the rest of south Wales during 1137.<ref>Carpenter, pp.164–165; Crouch (1998), p.258.</ref> [[Owain Gwynedd]] and [[Gruffydd ap Rhys]] captured considerable territories, including [[Carmarthen Castle]].<ref name="Carpenter, p.165"/> Stephen responded by sending Richard's brother Baldwin and the Marcher Lord Robert Fitz Harold of Ewyas into Wales to pacify the region. Neither mission was particularly successful and by the end of 1137 the king appears to have abandoned attempts to put down the rebellion. Historian [[David Crouch (historian)|David Crouch]] suggests that Stephen effectively "bowed out of Wales" around this time to concentrate on his other problems.<ref>Crouch (1998), pp.260, 262.</ref> Meanwhile, Stephen had put down two revolts in the south-west led by [[Baldwin de Redvers]] and Robert of Bampton; Baldwin was released after his capture and travelled to Normandy, where he became an increasingly vocal critic of the king.<ref>Bradbury, pp.27–32.</ref>

Geoffrey of Anjou attacked Normandy in early 1136 and, after a temporary truce, invaded later the same year, raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory.<ref name=BarlowP168>Barlow, p.168.</ref> Events in England meant that Stephen was unable to travel to Normandy himself, so [[Waleran de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Worcester|Waleran de Beaumont]], appointed by Stephen as the lieutenant of Normandy, and Theobald led the efforts to defend the duchy.<ref>Crouch (2008b), pp.46–47; Crouch (2002), p.252.</ref> Stephen himself only returned to the duchy in 1137, where he met with Louis VI and Theobald to agree to an informal regional alliance, probably brokered by Henry, to counter the growing Angevin power in the region.<ref>Crouch (2008b), p.47.</ref> As part of this deal, Louis recognised Stephen's son Eustace as Duke of Normandy in exchange for Eustace giving fealty to the French king.<ref>Barlow, p.168;</ref> Stephen was less successful in regaining the [[Argentan]] province along the Normandy and Anjou border, which Geoffrey had taken at the end of 1135.<ref>Davis, p.27.</ref> Stephen formed an army to retake it, but the frictions between his Flemish mercenary forces led by William of Ypres and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle between the two halves of his army.<ref>Davis, p.27; Bennett, p.102.</ref> The Norman forces then deserted the king, forcing Stephen to give up his campaign.<ref>Davis, p.28.</ref> Stephen agreed to another truce with Geoffrey, promising to pay him 2,000 [[mark (money)|marks]] a year in exchange for peace along the Norman borders.<ref name=BarlowP168/>{{#tag:ref|[[Geoffrey of Anjou]] appears to have agreed to this at least partially because of the pressure of the combined Anglo-Norman-French regional alliance against him.<ref>Crouch (2008b), p.50; Barlow, p.168.</ref> Medieval financial figures are notoriously hard to convert into modern currency; for comparison, 2,000 marks equated to around £1,333 in a period in which a major castle rebuilding project might cost around £1,115.<ref>Pettifer, p.257.</ref>|group="nb"}}

Stephen's first years as king can be interpreted in different ways. Seen positively, Stephen stabilised the northern border with Scotland, contained Geoffrey's attacks on Normandy, was at peace with Louis VI, enjoyed good relations with the church and had the broad support of his barons.<ref>Barlow, pp.165, 167; Stringer, pp.17–18.</ref> There were significant underlying problems, nonetheless. The north of England was now controlled by David and Prince Henry, Stephen had abandoned Wales, the fighting in Normandy had considerably destabilised the duchy, and an increasing number of barons felt that Stephen had given them neither the lands nor the titles they felt they deserved or were owed.<ref>Barlow, p.168; Crouch (1998), p.264; Carpenter, p.168.</ref> Stephen was also rapidly running out of money: Henry's considerable treasury had been emptied by 1138 due to the costs of running Stephen's more lavish court, and the need to raise and maintain his mercenary armies fighting in England and Normandy.<ref name=CarpenterP169>Carpenter, p.169.</ref>

===Early fighting (1138–1139)===
Fighting broke out on several fronts during 1138. Firstly, [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester|Robert of Gloucester]] rebelled against the king, starting the descent into civil war in England.<ref name=CarpenterP169/> An illegitimate son of Henry I and the half-brother of the Empress Matilda, Robert was one of the most powerful Anglo-Norman barons, controlling estates in Normandy as well as the [[Earldom of Gloucester]].<ref name=BarlowP169>Barlow, p.169.</ref> In 1138, Robert renounced his fealty to Stephen and declared his support for Matilda, triggering a major regional rebellion in [[Kent]] and across the south-west of England, although Robert himself remained in Normandy.<ref>Stringer, p.18.</ref> Matilda had not been particularly active in asserting her claims to the throne since 1135 and in many ways it was Robert that took the initiative in declaring war in 1138.<ref>Chibnall, pp.70–71; Bradbury, p.25.</ref> In France, Geoffrey took advantage of the situation by re-invading Normandy. David of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again, announcing that he was supporting the claim of his niece the Empress Matilda to the throne, pushing south into [[Yorkshire]].<ref name="CarpenterP166"/>{{#tag:ref|[[David I of Scotland|David I]] was related to the [[Empress Matilda]] and to [[Matilda of Boulogne]] through his mother, Queen [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]].|group="nb"}}

Stephen rapidly responded to the revolts and invasions, focusing primarily on England rather than Normandy. His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne, with the task of retaking the key port of [[Dover]], under Robert's control.<ref name=BarlowP169/> A small number of Stephen's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots, where David's forces were defeated later that year at the [[Battle of the Standard]] in August by the forces of [[Thurstan]], the [[Archbishop of York]].<ref name=CarpenterP166>Carpenter, p.166.</ref> Despite this victory, David still occupied most of the north of England.<ref name=CarpenterP166/> Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of [[Gloucestershire]], first striking north into the [[Welsh Marches]], taking [[Hereford]] and [[Shrewsbury]], then heading south to [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]].<ref name=BarlowP169/> [[Bristol]] proved too strong for him, and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area.<ref name=BarlowP169/> The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support, but he remained in Normandy throughout the year, trying to persuade the Empress Matilda to invade England herself.<ref>Bradbury, p.67.</ref> Dover finally surrendered to the queen's forces later in the year.<ref name=Crouch2002P256>Crouch (2002), p.256.</ref>

Stephen's military campaign in England had progressed well, and historian David Crouch describes it as "a military achievement of the first rank".<ref name=Crouch2002P256/> The king took the opportunity of his military advantage to forge a peace agreement with Scotland.<ref name=Crouch2002P256/> Stephen's wife Matilda was sent to negotiate another agreement between Stephen and David, called the [[Treaty of Durham (1139)|treaty of Durham]]; Northumbria and Cumbria would effectively be granted to David and his son [[Henry, Earl of Northumbria|Henry]], in exchange for their fealty and future peace along the border.<ref name=CarpenterP166/> The powerful [[Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester|Ranulf, Earl of Chester]], considered himself to hold the traditional rights to Carlisle and Cumberland and was extremely displeased to see them being given to the Scots, a problem which would have long lasting implications in the war.<ref name=DavisP50/>

===Preparations for war (1139)===
[[File:Goodrich Castle keep1.jpg|thumb|alt=A photograph of the keep at Goodrich Castle in the 21st century|The [[keep]] at [[Goodrich Castle|Goodrich]] in [[Herefordshire]] in the [[Welsh Marches]], an example of the style of fortification slowly beginning to replace wooden [[motte and bailey]] castle designs by the late 1130s]]
By 1139, an invasion of England by Robert and Matilda appeared imminent. Geoffrey and Matilda had secured much of Normandy and, together with Robert, spent the beginning of the year mobilising forces ready for a cross-Channel expedition.<ref>Chibnall, p.74.</ref> Matilda also appealed to the papacy at the start of the year, putting forward her legal claim to the English throne; the pope declined to reverse his earlier support for Stephen, but from Matilda's perspective the case usefully established that Stephen's claim was disputed.<ref>Chibnall, pp.75–76.</ref>

Meanwhile, Stephen prepared for the coming conflict by creating a number of additional [[List of earldoms|earldoms]].<ref>Bradbury, p.52.</ref> Only a handful of earldoms had existed under Henry I and these had been largely symbolic in nature. Stephen created many more, filling them with men he considered to be loyal, capable military commanders, and in the more vulnerable parts of the country assigning them new lands and additional executive powers.<ref>Bradbury, p.70.</ref>{{#tag:ref|R. Davis and W. L. Warren argue that the typical earldom involved the delegation of considerable royal powers; Keith Stringer and Judith Green capture the current consensus that the degree of delegated powers followed the degree of threat, and that perhaps fewer powers in total were delegated than once thought.<ref>White (2000), pp.76–77.</ref>|group="nb"}} Stephen appears to have had several objectives in mind, including both ensuring the loyalty of his key supporters by granting them these honours, and improving his defences in vulnerable parts of the kingdom. Stephen was heavily influenced by his principal advisor, [[Waleran de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Worcester|Waleran de Beaumont]], the twin brother of [[Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester|Robert of Leicester]]. The Beaumont twins and their younger brother and cousins received the majority of these new earldoms.<ref>Barlow, pp.171–172; Crouch (2008a), p.29.</ref> From 1138 onwards, Stephen gave them the earldoms of [[Earl of Worcester|Worcester]], [[Earldom of Leicester|Leicester]], [[Earl of Hertford|Hertford]], [[Earldom of Warwick|Warwick]] and [[Earl of Pembroke|Pembroke]], which—especially when combined with the possessions of Stephen's new ally, Prince Henry, in Cumberland and Northumbria—created a wide block of territory to act as a [[buffer zone]] between the troubled south-west, [[Chester]] and the rest of the kingdom.<ref>Barlow, p.172.</ref>

Stephen took steps to remove a group of bishops he regarded as a threat to his rule. The royal administration under Henry I had been headed by [[Roger of Salisbury|Roger]], the [[Bishop of Salisbury]], supported by Roger's nephews, [[Alexander of Lincoln|Alexander]] and [[Nigel (Bishop of Ely)|Nigel]], the Bishops of [[Bishop of Lincoln|Lincoln]] and [[Bishop of Ely|Ely]] respectively, and Roger's son, [[Roger le Poer]], who was the [[Lord Chancellor]].<ref>Davis, p.31.</ref> These bishops were powerful landowners as well as ecclesiastical rulers, and they had begun to build new castles and increase the size of their military forces, leading Stephen to suspect that they were about to defect to the Empress Matilda. Roger and his family were also enemies of Waleran, who disliked their control of the royal administration.<ref name=DavisP32/> In June 1139, Stephen held his court in Oxford, where a fight between [[Alan, 1st Earl of Richmond|Alan of Brittany]] and Roger's men broke out, an incident probably deliberately created by Stephen.<ref name=DavisP32>Davis, p.32.</ref> Stephen responded by demanding that Roger and the other bishops surrender all of their castles in England. This threat was backed up by the arrest of the bishops, with the exception of Nigel who had taken refuge in [[Devizes Castle]]; the bishop only surrendered after Stephen besieged the castle and threatened to execute Roger le Poer.<ref>Yoshitake, p.98.</ref> The remaining castles were then surrendered to the king.<ref name=DavisP32/>{{#tag:ref|The impact of these arrests on the efficacy of the subsequent royal administration and the loyalty of the wider English church has been much discussed. Kenji Yoshitake represents the current academic consensus when he notes that the impact of the arrests "was not serious", placing the beginning of the disintegration of the royal government at the subsequent Battle of Lincoln.<ref>Yoshitake, pp.97–98; 108–109.</ref>|group="nb"}} The incident removed any military threat from the bishops, but it may have damaged Stephen's relationship with the senior clergy, and in particular with his brother Henry.<ref>Davis, p.34; Barlow, p.173.</ref>{{#tag:ref|Keith Stringer argues that Stephen "was surely right" to seize the castles, and that the act was a "calculated display of royal masterfulness"; Jim Bradbury and Frank Barlow praise the military soundness of the tactic. David Carpenter and R. Davis observe that Stephen had ended up breaking his promises to the Church, was forced to appear before a church court, and damaged his relationship with Henry of Blois, which would have grave implications in 1141.<ref>Stringer, p.20; Bradbury, p.61; Davis, p.35; Barlow, p.173; Carpenter, p.170.</ref>|group="nb"}} Both sides were now ready for war.