Editing Television (section)

===Electronic===
{{Further|Video camera tube}}
[[File:Ferdinand_Braun.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Ferdinand Braun]]]]
In 1897, English [[physicist]] [[J. J. Thomson]] was able, in his three well-known experiments, to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern [[cathode-ray tube]] (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist [[Ferdinand Braun]] in 1897 and is also known as the "Braun" tube.<ref>Ferdinand Braun (1897) [https://archive.today/20141217172841/http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89048352892;view=1up;seq=568 "Ueber ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufs variabler Ströme"] (On a process for the display and study of the course in time of variable currents), ''Annalen der Physik und Chemie'', 3rd series, '''60''' : 552–59.</ref> It was a [[cold cathode|cold-cathode]] [[diode]], a modification of the [[Crookes tube]], with a [[phosphor]]-coated screen. Braun was the first to conceive the use of a CRT as a display device.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lehrer |first1=Norman H. |title=Flat-Panel Displays and CRTS |chapter=The Challenge of the Cathode-Ray Tube|editor-first=Lawrence E. Jr. |editor-last=Tannas|doi=10.1007/978-94-011-7062-8_6|isbn=978-94-011-7062-8 |pages=138–76 |publisher=[[Van Nostrand Reinhold|Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.]]|location=New York|date=1985}}</ref> The ''Braun tube'' became the foundation of 20th century television.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/karl-ferdinand-braun|title=Karl Ferdinand Braun|website=The Linda Hall Library}}</ref> In 1906 the Germans Max Dieckmann and Gustav Glage produced [[Raster scan|raster images]] for the first time in a CRT.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/television_timeline_1.htm|title=Television Timeline 1812–1923 – Television Heaven|first=Laurence|last=Marcus|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-date=17 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017014615/http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/television_timeline_1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1907, Russian scientist [[Boris Rosing]] used a CRT in the receiving end of an experimental [[video signal]] to form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen.<ref name="crthistory">{{cite web |url=http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinventions/a/CathodeRayTube.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709164537/http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinventions/a/CathodeRayTube.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 July 2012 |title=History of the Cathode Ray Tube |access-date=4 October 2009 |work=About.com }}</ref>

In 1908, [[Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton]], a fellow of the [[Royal Society]] (UK), published a letter in the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in which he described how "distant electric vision" could be achieved by using a cathode-ray tube, or Braun tube, as both a transmitting and receiving device,<ref name="Swinton_DEV1">
{{cite journal
 | author = Campbell-Swinton, A. A.
 | title = Distant Electric Vision (first paragraph)
 | journal = Nature
 | volume = 78
 | issue = 2016
 | page = 151
 | date = 18 June 1908
| doi=10.1038/078151a0| bibcode = 1908Natur..78..151S
 | s2cid = 3956737
 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1429503
 | doi-access = free
 }}
</ref><ref name="Swinton_DEV2">
{{cite journal
 | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v78/n2016/pdf/078151a0.pdf
 | author = Campbell-Swinton, A. A.
 | title = Distant Electric Vision
 | journal = Nature
 | volume = 78
 | page = 151
 | date = 18 June 1908
| issue=2016
| doi=10.1038/078151a0| bibcode = 1908Natur..78..151S
 | s2cid = 3956737
 | doi-access = free
 }}
</ref> he expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in ''[[The Times]]''<ref>"Distant Electric Vision", ''The Times'' (London), 15 November 1911, p. 24b.</ref> and the Journal of the Röntgen Society.<ref name="Swinton_Braid">
{{cite web
 | url = http://www.bairdtelevision.com/swinton.html
 | title = Alan Archivald Campbell-Swinton (1863–1930)
 | author = Bairdtelevision
 | work = Biography
 | access-date = 10 May 2010}}
</ref><ref name="Swinton-Rontgen">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OlXsZdT8HUQC&q=swinton+rontgen|title=Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940|first=May|last=Shiers|date=29 December 1997|page=56|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8240-7782-2 |via=Google Books}}</ref> In a letter to ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a [[cathode ray]] beam.<ref name="Swinton_ET1">
{{cite journal
 | author = Campbell-Swinton, A. A.
 | title = Electric Television (abstract)
 | journal = Nature
 | volume = 118
 | issue = 2973
 | page = 590
 | date = 23 October 1926
| doi=10.1038/118590a0| bibcode = 1926Natur.118..590S
 | s2cid = 4081053
 | doi-access = free
 }}
</ref><ref name="Burns-Swinton">{{cite book
 | title = Television: An International History of the Formative Years
 | author = Burns, R W.
 | publisher = The Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE) (History of Technology Series 22) in association with [ The Science Museum (UK)]
 | year = 1998
 | isbn = 978-0-85296-914-4
 | page = 123
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gZcwhVyiMqsC&q=swinton+minchin+stanton+1903
 }}</ref> These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died,<ref name="Minchin">
{{cite journal |author=G. |first=R. A. |date=2 April 1914 |title=Prof. G.M. Minchin, F.R.S |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=93 |issue=2318 |pages=115–16 |bibcode=1914Natur..93..115R |doi=10.1038/093115a0 |doi-access=free}}
</ref> but they were later repeated by two different teams in 1937, by H. Miller and J. W. Strange from [[EMI]],<ref name="Miller-Strange">
{{cite journal
 | doi = 10.1088/0959-5309/50/3/307
 |author1=Miller, H. |author2=Strange. J. W.
 |name-list-style=amp | title = The electrical reproduction of images by the photoconductive effect
 | journal = Proceedings of the Physical Society
 | volume = 50
 | issue = 3
 | pages = 374–84
 | date = 2 May 1938| bibcode = 1938PPS....50..374M
 }}
</ref> and by H. Iams and A. Rose from [[RCA]].<ref name="Iams-Rose-1937">
{{cite journal
 | doi = 10.1109/JRPROC.1937.228423
 |author1=Iams, H. |author2=Rose, A.
 |name-list-style=amp | title = Television Pickup Tubes with Cathode-Ray Beam Scanning
 | journal = Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers
 | volume = 25
 | issue = 8
 | pages = 1048–70
 | date = August 1937|s2cid=51668505 }}
</ref> Both teams successfully transmitted "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode-ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel.<ref>Abramson, Albert, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', p. 16.</ref> The first cathode-ray tube to use a [[hot cathode]] was developed by [[John Bertrand Johnson|John B. Johnson]] (who gave his name to the term [[Johnson–Nyquist noise|Johnson noise]]) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of [[Western Electric]], and became a commercial product in 1922.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}

In 1926, Hungarian engineer [[Kálmán Tihanyi]] designed a television system using fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera") tube.<ref name="Radioskop" /><ref name=US2133123>United States Patent Office, Patent No. 2,133,123, 11 October 1938.</ref><ref name=US2158259>United States Patent Office, Patent No. 2,158,259, 16 May 1939</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bairdtelevision.com/zworykin.html |title=Vladimir Kosma Zworykin, 1889–1982 |publisher=Bairdtelevision.com |access-date=17 April 2009}}</ref> The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by Kálmán Tihanyi beginning in 1924.<ref name="IEC_Tihanyi">[http://www.iec.ch/about/history/techline/swf/temp.xml] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033236/http://www.iec.ch/about/history/techline/swf/temp.xml|date=24 September 2015}} "Kálmán Tihanyi (1897–1947)", ''IEC Techline'', International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 15 July 2009.</ref> His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges ("photoelectrons") within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in [[Hungary]] in March 1926 for a television system he called "Radioskop".<ref name="Radioskop">{{Cite web |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/kalman-tihanyis-1926-patent-application-radioskop |title=Kálmán Tihanyi's 1926 Patent Application Radioskop |publisher=UNESCO Memory of the World Programme| access-date=2025-04-22}}</ref> After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application,<ref name="IEC_Tihanyi"/> Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930,<ref name="abstract1928">[http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19301111&CC=GB&NR=313456A&KC=A Tihanyi, Koloman, ''Improvements in television apparatus''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204171044/https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19301111&CC=GB&NR=313456A&KC=A |date=4 December 2022 }}. European Patent Office, Patent No. GB313456. Convention date UK application: 1928-06-11, declared void and published: 11 November 1930. Retrieved 25 April 2013.</ref> so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of [[RCA]]'s "[[iconoscope]]" in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2133123|title=Patent US2133123 – Television apparatus|access-date=22 March 2015}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2158259|title=Patent US2158259 – Television apparatus|access-date=22 March 2015}}</ref> Charge storage remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day.<ref name="Radioskop"/> On 25 December 1926, at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan, Japanese inventor [[Kenjiro Takayanagi]] demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display.<ref name="nhk.or.jp"/> This was the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver and Takayanagi's team later made improvements to this system parallel to other television developments.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=June 1932 |title=The Editor—to You |journal=Radio News |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=979}}</ref> Takayanagi did not apply for a patent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Development_of_Electronic_Television,_1924-1941|title=Milestones:Development of Electronic Television, 1924–1941|access-date=22 March 2015}}</ref>

In the 1930s, [[Allen B. DuMont]] made the first CRTs to last 1,000 hours of use, one of the factors that led to the widespread adoption of television.<ref>Hart, Hugh (28 January 2010). [https://www.wired.com/2010/01/jan-29-1901-dumont-will-make-tv-work-2/ "Jan. 29, 1901: DuMont Will Make TV Work."] ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]''. Retrieved 21 May 2021.</ref>

On 7 September 1927, U.S. inventor [[Philo Farnsworth]]'s [[image dissector]] camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco.<ref name="Postman">[https://web.archive.org/web/20000531100005/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html Postman, Neil, "Philo Farnsworth"], ''The TIME 100: Scientists & Thinkers'', ''Time'', 29 March 1999. Retrieved 28 July 2009.</ref><ref name="sfmuseum">[http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/philo.html "Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906–1971)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622033654/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/philo.html |date=22 June 2011 }}, ''The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco''. Retrieved 15 July 2009.</ref> By 3 September 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration.<ref name="sfmuseum"/> In 1929, the system was improved further by eliminating a motor generator so that his television system had no mechanical parts.<ref>Abramson, Albert, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', p. 226.</ref> That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma ("Pem") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://db3-sql.staff.library.utah.edu/lucene/Manuscripts/null/Ms0648.xml/complete |title = The Philo T. and Elma G. Farnsworth Papers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422211543/http://db3-sql.staff.library.utah.edu/lucene/Manuscripts/null/Ms0648.xml/complete |archive-date=22 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Zworykin kinescope 1929.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Vladimir Zworykin]] demonstrates electronic television (1929).]]
Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin also experimented with the cathode-ray tube to create and show images. While working for [[Westinghouse Electric (1886)|Westinghouse Electric]] in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. However, in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast and poor definition, and was stationary.<ref>Abramson, Albert, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 51. {{ISBN|0-252-02104-5}}.</ref> Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. However, RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus, based on Zworykin's 1923 patent application, RCA filed a [[patent interference]] suit against Farnsworth. The [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|U.S. Patent Office]] examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system could not produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application.<ref name=US1691324>[https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ Zworykin, Vladimir K., Television System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131053220/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ |date=31 January 2014 }}. Patent No. 1691324, U.S. Patent Office. Filed 1925-07-13, issued 13 November 1928. Retrieved 28 July 2009</ref> He also divided his original application in 1931.<ref name="US2022450">[https://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-AAAAEBAJ Zworykin, Vladimir K., Television System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518183522/http://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-AAAAEBAJ |date=18 May 2013 }}. Patent No. 2022450, U.S. Patent Office. Filed 1923-12-29, issued 26 November 1935. Retrieved 10 May 2010.</ref> Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts and being determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1&nbsp;million over ten years, in addition to license payments, to use his patents.<ref>Stashower, Daniel, ''The Boy Genius and the Mogul: The Untold Story of Television'', Broadway Books, 2002, pp. 243–44. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0759-0}}.</ref><ref name="Everson">Everson, George (1949), ''The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth'' New York: W.W. Norton & Co,. {{ISBN|978-0-405-06042-7}}, 266 pp.</ref>

In 1933, RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle.<ref name="NewYorkTimes">{{cite news |author=Lawrence, Williams L. |title=Human-like eye made by engineers to televise images|quote= 'Iconoscope' converts scenes into electrical energy for radio transmission. Fast as a movie camera. Three million tiny photocells 'memorize,' then pass out pictures. Step to home television. Developed in ten years of work by Dr. V.K. Zworykin, who describes it in Chicago. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OlXsZdT8HUQC&q=3971+zworykin+N.Y.T | work=The New York Times |date=27 June 1933 |access-date=10 January 2010 |isbn=978-0-8240-7782-2}}</ref> Called the "Iconoscope" by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 [[lux]], and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} However, Farnsworth had overcome his power issues with his Image Dissector through the invention of a completely unique "[[multipactor effect|Multipactor]]" device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931.<ref name="TheHistoryofTV1">Abramson, Albert (1987), ''The History of Television, 1880 to 1941''. Jefferson, NC: Albert Abramson. p. 148. {{ISBN|0-89950-284-9}}.</ref><ref name="Everson1">Everson, George (1949), ''The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth'' New York: W.W. Norton & Co,. {{ISBN|978-0-405-06042-7}}, pp. 137–41.</ref> This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better<ref name="Everson2">Everson, George (1949), ''The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth'' New York: W.W. Norton & Co,. {{ISBN|978-0-405-06042-7}}, p. 139.</ref> and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. Unfortunately, an issue with the multipactor was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate.<ref name="Everson3">Everson, George (1949), ''The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth'' New York: W.W. Norton & Co,. {{ISBN|978-0-405-06042-7}}, p. 141.</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-K0917-501, Prof. Manfred v. Ardenne.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|[[Manfred von Ardenne]] in 1933]]
At the [[Berlin Radio Show]] in August 1931 in [[Berlin]], [[Manfred von Ardenne]] gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception, the first completely electronic television transmission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vonardenne.biz/ja/company/history/manfred-von-ardenne/|title=Manfred von Ardenne|website=VON ARDENNE Website}}</ref> However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a [[flying-spot scanner]] to scan slides and film.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''Zworykin: Pioneer of Television'', University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 111.</ref> Ardenne achieved his first transmission of television pictures on 24 December 1933, followed by test runs for a public television service in 1934. The world's first electronically scanned television service then started in Berlin in 1935, the [[Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow]], culminating in the live broadcast of the [[1936 Summer Olympic Games]] from Berlin to public places all over Germany.<ref name="dw">{{cite web|title=22.3.1935: Erstes Fernsehprogramm der Welt|url=http://www.kalenderblatt.de/index.php?what=thmanu&lang=de&manu_id=1737&sdt=20090322&maca=de-podcast_kalenderblatt-1086-xml-mrss|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|accessdate=27 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="computer">{{cite web|title=Es begann in der Fernsehstube: TV wird 80 Jahre alt|url=http://www.computerbild.de/artikel/avf-News-Fernseher-Es-begann-in-der-Fernsehstube-TV-wird-80-Jahre-alt-11525963.html|publisher=Computer Bild|date=22 March 2015|accessdate=28 April 2017|archive-date=21 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121012410/https://www.computerbild.de/artikel/avf-News-Fernseher-Es-begann-in-der-Fernsehstube-TV-wird-80-Jahre-alt-11525963.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera, at the [[Franklin Institute]] of [[Philadelphia]] on 25 August 1934 and for ten days afterward.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=yt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA838 New Television System Uses 'Magnetic Lens']", ''Popular Mechanics'', Dec. 1934, pp. 838–39.</ref><ref name="Burns370">Burns, R.W. ''Television: An international history of the formative years''. (1998). IEE History of Technology Series, 22. London: IEE, p. 370. {{ISBN|9780852969144}}.</ref> Mexican inventor [[Guillermo González Camarena]] also played an important role in early television. His experiments with television (known as telectroescopía at first) began in 1931 and led to a patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" [[color television]] in 1940.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2296019|title=Patent US2296019 – Chromoscopic adapter for television equipment|access-date=22 March 2015}}</ref> In Britain, the [[EMI]] engineering team led by [[Isaac Shoenberg]] applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they called "the Emitron",<ref name="GB406353">{{cite web |author1=EMI LTD |author2=Tedham, William F. |author3=McGee, James D. |name-list-style=amp |title=Improvements in or relating to cathode ray tubes and the like |url=http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19340226&CC=GB&NR=406353A&KC=A |work=Patent No. GB 406,353 (filed May 1932, patented 1934) |publisher=United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office |access-date=22 February 2010 |archive-date=22 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122002108/https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19340226&CC=GB&NR=406353A&KC=A |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="US2077442">
{{cite web
 |author1=Tedham, William F. |author2=McGee, James D.
 |name-list-style=amp | title=Cathode Ray Tube
 | url=https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=BYNaAAAAEBAJ
 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523212804/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=BYNaAAAAEBAJ
 | url-status=dead
 | archive-date=23 May 2013
 | work=Patent No. 2,077,422 (filed in Great Britain 1932, filed in USA 1933, patented 1937)
 | publisher=United States Patent Office
 | access-date=10 January 2010
}}</ref> which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. On 2 November 1936, a [[405-line television system|405-line broadcasting]] service employing the Emitron began at studios in [[Alexandra Palace]] and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the Victorian building's towers. It alternated briefly with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios but was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular "high-definition" television service.<ref name="Burns576">Burns, R.W., ''Television: An international history of the formative years''. (1998). IEE History of Technology Series, 22. London: IEE, p. 576. {{ISBN|0-85296-914-7}}.</ref>

The original U.S. iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially compared to the high-definition mechanical scanning systems that became available.<ref name="Winstor-media">{{cite book
| title = Misunderstanding media
| author = Winston, Brian
| publisher = Harvard University Press
| year = 1986
| isbn = 978-0-674-57663-6
| pages = 60–61
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=K_RpAAAAIAAJ&q=%22american+iconoscope%22+noisy
| access-date = 9 March 2010
}}</ref><ref name="Winstor-history">{{cite book
| title = Media technology and society. A history: from the telegraph to the Internet
| author = Winston, Brian
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 1998
| isbn = 978-0-415-14230-4
| page = 105
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TZOF_1GZRmYC&q=american+iconoscope+noisy
| access-date = 9 March 2010
}}</ref> The [[EMI]] team, under the supervision of [[Isaac Shoenberg]], analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produced an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum.<ref name="Alexander">
{{cite book
| title=The inventor of stereo: the life and works of Alan Dower Blumlein
| author=Alexander, Robert Charles
| publisher=Focal Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-240-51628-8
| pages=217–19
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhx3UmYBz0C&q=super+emitron
| access-date=10 January 2010
}}</ref><ref name="Burns-Blumlein">
{{cite book
| title=The life and times of A.D. Blumlein
| author=Burns, R.W.
| publisher=IET
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-85296-773-7
| page=181
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B2z2ONO7nBQC&q=blumlein+mcgee+cps+emitron+decelerating+zero
| access-date=5 March 2010
}}</ref> They solved this problem by developing and patenting in 1934 two new camera tubes dubbed [[Video camera tube#Super-Emitron and image iconoscope|super-Emitron]] and [[Video camera tube#Orthicon and CPS Emitron|CPS Emitron]].<ref name="GB442666">{{cite web
 | author1 = Lubszynski, Hans Gerhard
 | author2 = Rodda, Sydney
 | name-list-style = amp
 | title = Improvements in or relating to television
 | url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360212&CC=GB&NR=442666A&KC=A
 | work = Patent No. GB 442,666 (filed May 1934, patented 1936)
 | publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
 | access-date = 15 January 2010
 | archive-date = 22 November 2021
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211122010440/https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19360212&CC=GB&NR=442666A&KC=A
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref><ref name="GB446661">{{cite web
 | author1 = Blumlein, Alan Dower
 | author2 = McGee, James Dwyer
 | name-list-style = amp
 | title = Improvements in or relating to television transmitting systems
 | url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360504&CC=GB&NR=446661A&KC=A
 | work = Patent No. GB 446,661 (filed August 1934, patented 1936)
 | publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
 | access-date = 9 March 2010
 | archive-date = 22 November 2021
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211122012740/https://v3.espacenet.com/errorpages/error403.htm?reason=RequestBlacklisted&ip=207.241.229.151
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref><ref name="GB446664">{{cite web
 | author = McGee, James Dwyer
 | title = Improvements in or relating to television transmitting systems
 | url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360505&CC=GB&NR=446664A&KC=A
 | work = Patent No. GB 446,664 (filed September 1934, patented 1936)
 | publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
 | access-date = 9 March 2010
 | archive-date = 22 November 2021
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211122020916/https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19360505&CC=GB&NR=446664A&KC=A
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref> The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes, and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater.<ref name="Alexander"/> It was used for [[outside broadcasting]] by the BBC, for the first time, on [[Armistice Day]] 1937, when the general public could watch on a television set as the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph.<ref name="Alexander2">
{{cite book
| title=The inventor of stereo: the life and works of Alan Dower Blumlein
| author=Alexander, Robert Charles
| publisher=Focal Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-240-51628-8
| page=216
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhx3UmYBz0C&q=emitron+cenotaph+armistice
| access-date=10 January 2010
}}</ref> This was the first time that anyone had broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighboring buildings because neither Farnsworth nor RCA would do the same until the [[1939 New York World's Fair]].
[[File:1939 RCA Television Advertisement.jpg|left|thumb|Ad for the beginning of experimental television broadcasting in New York City by RCA in 1939]]
[[File:RCA Indian Head test pattern.JPG|thumb|right|[[Indian-head test pattern]] used during the black-and-white era before 1970. It was displayed when a television station first signed on every day.]]
On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken.<ref name="Inglis">{{cite book
 | title = Behind the tube: a history of broadcasting technology and business
 | author = Inglis, Andrew F.
 | publisher = Focal Press
 | year = 1990
 | isbn = 978-0-240-80043-1
 | page = 172
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xiu4AAAAIAAJ&q=image-iconoscope+telefunken
 | access-date = 15 January 2010
}}</ref> The "image iconoscope" ("Superikonoskop" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the [[patent war]] between Zworykin and Farnsworth because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their ''Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher'' (''Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television'') in Germany in 1925,<ref name="DE450187">{{cite web
 | author1 = Dieckmann, Max
 | author2 = Rudolf Hell
 | name-list-style = amp
 | title = Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröehre für Fernseher
 | url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=DE&NR=450187C&KC=C&FT=D&date=19271003&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_V3
 | work = Patent No. DE 450,187 (filed 1925, patented 1927)
 | publisher = Deutsches Reich Reichspatentamt
 | access-date = 28 July 2009
 | archive-date = 22 November 2021
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211122022403/https://v3.espacenet.com/errorpages/error403.htm?reason=RequestBlacklisted&ip=207.241.231.164
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref> two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States.<ref name="US1773980">
{{cite web
 | author = Farnsworth, Philo T.
 | title = Television System
 | url=https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=HRd5AAAAEBAJ
 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523192021/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=HRd5AAAAEBAJ
 | url-status=dead
 | archive-date=23 May 2013
 | work = Patent No. 1,773,980 (filed 1927, patented 1930)
 | publisher = United States Patent Office
 | access-date = 28 July 2009
}}</ref> The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the [[Video camera tube|vidicon]] and [[Video camera tube|plumbicon]] tubes. Indeed, it represented the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon.<ref name="Vries">{{cite book
 | title = Design methodology and relationships with science, Número 71 de NATO ASI series
 |author1=de Vries, M.J. |author2=de Vries, Marc |author3=Cross, Nigel |author4=Grant, Donald P. |name-list-style=amp | publisher = Springer
 | year = 1993
 | isbn = 978-0-7923-2191-0
 | page = 222
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4T8U_J1h7noC&q=image-iconoscope+image-orthicon+telefunken
 | access-date = 15 January 2010
}}</ref><ref name="Multicon">
{{cite web
 | author = Smith, Harry
 | title = Multicon – A new TV camera tube
 | url = http://www.earlytelevision.org/multicon.html
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100318011743/http://www.earlytelevision.org/multicon.html
 | archive-date = 18 March 2010
| work = newspaper article
 | date = July 1953
 | publisher = Early Television Foundation and Museum
 | access-date = 15 January 2010
}}</ref> The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games,<ref name="Heimann1">
{{cite web
| author=Gittel, Joachim
| title=Spezialröhren
| url=http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Spezialroehren.htm
| work=photographic album
| date=11 October 2008
| publisher=Jogis Röhrenbude
| access-date=15 January 2010
}}</ref><ref name="ETM">
{{cite web
 | author = Early Television Museum
 | title = TV Camera Tubes, German "Super Iconoscope" (1936)
 | url = http://www.earlytelevision.org/prewar_camera_tubes.html
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110617080126/http://www.earlytelevision.org/prewar_camera_tubes.html
 | archive-date = 17 June 2011
| work = photographic album
 | publisher = Early Television Foundation and Museum
 | access-date = 15 January 2010
}}</ref> later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955;<ref name="Heimann2">
{{cite web
| author=Gittel, Joachim
| title=FAR-Röhren der Firma Heimann
| url=http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/Heimann.htm
| work=photographic album
| date=11 October 2008
| publisher=Jogis Röhrenbude
| access-date=15 January 2010
}}</ref> finally the Dutch company [[Philips]] produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958.<ref name="Multicon"/><ref name="Philips">
{{cite book
 | author = Philips
 | chapter = 5854, Image Iconoscope, Philips
 | url = http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/5854_Philips_Iconoscop-1958.pdf
 | title = electronic tube handbook
 | year = 1958
 | publisher = Philips
 | access-date = 15 January 2010
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060903223404/http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/5854_Philips_Iconoscop-1958.pdf
 | archive-date = 3 September 2006
 | url-status = live
}}</ref>

U.S. television broadcasting, at the time, consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941.<ref name="Everson4">Everson, George (1949), ''The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth'' New York: W.W. Norton & Co,. {{ISBN|978-0-405-06042-7}}, p. 248.</ref> RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco.<ref name="TheHistoryofTV2">Abramson, Albert (1987), ''The History of Television, 1880 to 1941''. Jefferson, NC: Albert Abramson. p. 254. {{ISBN|0-89950-284-9}}.</ref> In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents.<ref name="Schatzkin187-8">Schatzkin, Paul (2002), ''The Boy Who Invented Television''. Silver Spring, Maryland: Teamcom Books, pp. 187–88. {{ISBN|1-928791-30-1}}.</ref> With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems.<ref name="TheHistoryofTV2"/> In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television.<ref>"Go-Ahead Signal Due for Television", ''The New York Times'', 25 April 1941, p. 7.</ref><ref>"An Auspicious Beginning", ''The New York Times'', 3 August 1941, p. X10.</ref> Electrical engineer [[Benjamin Adler]] played a prominent role in the development of television.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/18/obituaries/benjamin-adler-86-an-early-advocate-of-uhf-television.html|title=Benjamin Adler, 86, An Early Advocate of UHF Television|date=18 April 1990|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.poly.edu/poly_ebriefs/archives/Feb03.htm|title=ePoly Briefs Home|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304225948/http://archive.poly.edu/poly_ebriefs/archives/Feb03.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944 and became a national standard in 1946.<ref name="60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625">[http://625.625-net.ru/files/587/511/h_665921be9883776271895912fb8bb262 "On the beginning of broadcast in 625 lines 60 years ago"], ''625'' magazine (in Russian). {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131236/http://625.625-net.ru/files/587/511/h_665921be9883776271895912fb8bb262 |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in Moscow in 1948.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20041230091501/http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_255-portrait.pdf "M.I. Krivocheev – an engineer's engineer"], ''EBU Technical Review'', Spring 1993.</ref> The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European [[Comité consultatif international pour la radio|CCIR]] standard.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://cra.ir/FTD/Static/RRC/RRCFile10.pdf |title = "In the Vanguard of Television Broadcasting". |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221210300/http://cra.ir/FTD/Static/RRC/RRCFile10.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1936, [[Kálmán Tihanyi]] described the principle of [[plasma display]], the first [[flat-panel display]] system.<ref>[https://ewh.ieee.org/r2/johnstown/downloads/20090217_IEEE_JST_Trivia_Answers.pdf]</ref><ref>[http://www.scitech.mtesz.hu/52tihanyi/flat-panel_tv_en.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314070853/http://www.scitech.mtesz.hu/52tihanyi/flat-panel_tv_en.pdf|date=14 March 2012}}</ref>

Early electronic [[television sets]] were large and bulky, with [[analog circuits]] made of [[vacuum tubes]]. Following the invention of the first working [[transistor]] at [[Bell Labs]], [[Sony]] founder [[Masaru Ibuka]] predicted in 1952 that the transition to [[electronic circuits]] made of transistors would lead to smaller and more portable television sets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Childs |first1=William R. |last2=Martin |first2=Scott B. |last3=Stitt-Gohdes |first3=Wanda |title=Business and Industry: Savings and investment options to telecommuting |date=2004 |publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]] |isbn=9780761474395 |page=1217 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCwYAAAAIAAJ |quote=In 1952 Ibuka toured AT&T's Bell Laboratories in the United States and saw the newly invented transistor. He realized that replacing the large, clumsy vacuum tube with the transistor would make possible smaller, more portable radios and TVs.}}</ref> The first fully transistorized, portable [[solid-state electronics|solid-state]] television set was the 8-inch [[Sony TV8-301]], developed in 1959 and released in 1960.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sony Founder Masaru Ibuka's New Year's Dream Comes True: The Launch of Sony's TV Business |journal=Time Capsule |date=17 November 2009 |volume=21 |publisher=[[Sony]] |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/capsule/21/index.html |access-date=1 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sparke |first=Penny |title=Japanese Design |date=2009 |publisher=[[The Museum of Modern Art]] |isbn=9780870707391 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WaIQf2gV8pEC&pg=PA18}}</ref> This began the transformation of television viewership from a communal viewing experience to a solitary viewing experience.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lucie-Smith |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Lucie-Smith |title=A History of Industrial Design |date=1983 |publisher=[[Phaidon Press]] |isbn=9780714822815 |page=208 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMsfAQAAIAAJ |quote=The first all-transistor television set was introduced by Sony in 1959 (fig. 386), only four years after their all-transistor radio, and started the transformation of television from something used for communal viewing, as the radio in the 30s had been a focus for communal listening, into an object of solitary contemplation.}}</ref> By 1960, Sony had sold over 4{{nbsp}}million portable television sets worldwide.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chang |first1=Yoon Seok |last2=Makatsoris |first2=Harris C. |last3=Richards |first3=Howard D. |title=Evolution of Supply Chain Management: Symbiosis of Adaptive Value Networks and ICT |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9780306486968 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Y3wBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48}}</ref>
{{clear}}