Editing Suebi (section)

===Tribes names in classical sources===

====Northern bank of the Danube====
[[File:20181124Lobdengau-Museum05.jpg|thumb|Suebi ceramics. Lobdengau-Museum, [[Ladenburg]], Germany]]

In the time of Caesar, southern Germany had a mixture of [[Celts|Celtic]] and Germanic tribes and was increasingly coming under pressure from Germanic groups led by the Suebi. As described later by Tacitus, what is today southern Germany between the [[Danube]], the [[Main (river)|Main]], and the Rhine had been deserted by the departure of two large Celtic nations, the [[Helvetii]] in modern [[Schwaben]] and the [[Boii]] further east near the [[Hercynian forest]].<ref name="Tac. Ger. 28">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Tac.%20Ger.%2028&lang=original |title=Tac. Ger. 28 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2014-05-01}}</ref> In addition, near the Hercynian forest Caesar believed that the Celtic [[Tectosages]] had once lived. All of these peoples had for the most part moved by the time of Tacitus. Nevertheless, [[Cassius Dio]] wrote that the Suebi, who dwelt across the Rhine, were called Celts.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dio|first1=Cassius|title=Delphi Complete Works of Cassius Dio (Illustrated)|date=19 September 2014|publisher=Delphi Classics}}</ref> This may follow a Greek tradition of labelling all barbarian people north of the Alps as Celtic.

Strabo (64/63 BC – c. 24 AD), in Book IV (6.9) of his ''Geography'' also associates the Suebi with the [[Hercynian Forest]] and the south of Germania north of the Danube. He describes a chain of mountains north of the Danube that is like a lower extension of the Alps, possibly the [[Swabian Alps]], and further east the [[Gabreta Forest]], possibly the modern [[Bohemian forest]]. In Book VII (1.3) Strabo specifically mentions as Suevic peoples the [[Marcomanni]], who under King [[Marobodus]] had moved into the same Hercynian forest as the [[Coldui]] (possibly the [[Quadi]]), taking over an area called "Boihaemum". This king "took the rulership and acquired, in addition to the peoples aforementioned, the [[Lugii]] (a large tribe), the [[Zumi]], the [[Butones]], the [[Mugilones]], the [[Sibini]], and also the [[Semnones]], a large tribe of the Suevi themselves". Some of these tribes were "inside the forest" and some "outside of it".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0198:book=7:chapter=1&highlight=boihaemum |title=Strab. 7.1 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2014-05-01}}</ref> Tacitus confirms the name "Boiemum", saying it was a survival marking the old traditional population of the place, the Celtic [[Boii]], though the population had changed.<ref name="Tac. Ger. 28"/>

[[Tacitus]] describes a series of very powerful Suebian states in his own time, running along the north of the Danube which was the frontier with Rome, and stretching into the lands where the Elbe originates in the modern day [[Czech Republic]]. Going from west to east the first were the [[Hermunduri]], living near the sources of the [[Elbe]] and stretching across the Danube into Roman [[Rhaetia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D41 |title=Section 41 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2014-05-01}}</ref> Next came the [[Naristi]], the [[Marcomanni]], and then the [[Quadi]]. The Quadi are on the edge of greater Suebia, having the [[Sarmatians]] to the southeast.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D42 |title=Section 42 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2014-05-01}}</ref>
[[File:Suebi Germanic with nodus found in Apt, France.jpg|thumb|Suebi Germanic with nodus found in Apt, France]]
[[Claudius Ptolemy]] the geographer did not always state which tribes were Suebi, but along the northern bank of the Danube, from west to east and starting at the "[[Agri Decumates|desert]]" formerly occupied by the [[Helvetii]], he names the [[Parmaecampi]], then the [[Adrabaecampi]], and then a "large people" known as the [[Baemoi]] (whose name appears to recall the [[Boii]] again), and then the [[Racatriae]]. North of the Baemoi, is the [[Luna forest]] which has iron mines, and which is south of the Quadi. North of the Adrabaecampi, are the [[Sudini]] and then the Marcomanni living in the Gambreta forest. North of them, but south of the Sudetes mountains (which are not likely to be the same as the modern ones of that name) are the [[Varisti]], who are probably the same as Tacitus' "Naristi" mentioned above.

[[Jordanes]] writes that in the early 4th century the Vandals had moved to the north of the Danube, but with the Marcomanni still to their west, and the Hermunduri still to their north. A possible sign of confusion in this comment is that he equates the area in question to later [[Gepidia]], which was further south, in Pannonia, modern Hungary, and east of the Danube.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.romansonline.com/Src_Frame.asp?DocID=Gth_Goth_22 |title=Chapt 22 |publisher=Romansonline.com |access-date=2014-05-01 |archive-date=2013-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105120230/http://www.romansonline.com/Src_Frame.asp?DocID=Gth_Goth_22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In general, as discussed below, the Danubian Suebi, along with the neighbours such as the Vandals, apparently moved southwards into Roman territories, both south and east of the Danube, during this period.

====Approaching the Rhine====
Caesar describes the Suebi as pressing the German tribes of the Rhine, such as the [[Tencteri]], [[Usipetes]] and [[Ubii]], from the east, forcing them from their homes. While emphasizing their warlike nature he writes as if they had a settled homeland somewhere between the [[Cherusci]] and the [[Ubii]], and separated from the Cherusci by a deep forest called the Silva Bacenis. He also describes the Marcomanni as a tribe distinct from the Suebi, and also active within the same alliance. But he does not describe where they were living.

[[Strabo]] wrote that the Suebi "excel all the others in power and numbers."<ref>{{cite book | last=Strabo | title=Geographica  | pages=Book IV Chapter 3 Section 4 | no-pp=true}}</ref> He describes Suebic peoples (Greek ''ethnē'') as having come to dominate Germany between the Rhine and Elbe, with the exception of the Rhine valley, on the frontier with the Roman empire, and the "coastal" regions north of the Rhine.

The geographer [[Ptolemy]] (c. AD 90 – c. AD 168), in a fairly extensive account of Greater Germany,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/2/10.html |title=Geography|last=Strabo |volume=Book II, chapter X |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=2014-05-01}}</ref> makes several unusual mentions of Suebi between the Rhine and the Elbe. He describes their position as stretching out in a band from the Elbe, all the way to the northern Rhine, near the [[Sugambri]]. The "Suevi [[Langobardi]]" are the Suevi located closest to the Rhine, far to the east of where most sources report them. To the east of the Langobardi, are the "Suevi [[Angili]]", extending as far north as the middle Elbe, also to the east of the position reported in other sources. It has been speculated that Ptolemy may have been confused by his sources, or else that this position of the Langobardi represented a particular moment in history.<ref>[[Gudmund Schütte|Schütte]], [https://archive.org/stream/ptolemysmapsofno00schrich ''Ptolemy's Maps of Northern Europe'']</ref>

As discussed below, in the third century a large group of Suebi, also referred to as the [[Allemanni]], moved up to the Rhine bank in modern [[Schwaben]], which had previously been controlled by the Romans. They competed in this region with Burgundians who had arrived from further east.

====The Elbe====

Strabo does not say much about the Suebi east of the Elbe, saying that this region was still unknown to Romans,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D7%3Achapter%3D2 |title=''Geography'' 7.2 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2014-05-01}}</ref> but mentions that a part of the Suebi live there, naming only specifically the [[Hermunduri]] and the [[Langobardi]]. But he mentions these are there because of recent defeats at Roman hands which had forced them over the river. (Tacitus mentions that the Hermunduri were later welcomed on to the Roman border at the Danube.) In any case he says that the area near the Elbe itself is held by the Suebi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D7%3Achapter%3D3 |title=''Geography'' 7.3 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2014-05-01}}</ref>

From Tacitus and Ptolemy we can derive more details:
* The [[Semnones]] are described by Tacitus as "the oldest and noblest of the Suebi", and, like the Suebi described by Caesar, they have 100 cantons. Tacitus says that "the vastness of their community makes them regard themselves as the head of the Suevic race".<ref name="Section 39">''Germania'' Section 39.</ref> According to Ptolemy the "Suevi Semnones" live upon the Elbe and stretch as far east as a river apparently named after them, the Suevus, probably the [[Oder]]. South of them he places the [[Silingi]], and then, again upon the Elbe, the [[Calucones]]. To the southeast further up the upper Elbe he places not the Hermunduri mentioned by other authors (who had possibly moved westwards and become Ptolemy's "[[Teuriochaemai]]", and the later [[Thuringii]]), but the [[Baenochaemae]] (whose name appears to be somehow related to the modern name [[Bohemia]], and somehow derived from the older placename mentioned by Strabo and Tacitus as the capital of King [[Marobodus]] after he settled his Marcomanni in the [[Hercynian forest]]). A monument confirms that the [[Juthungi]], who fought the Romans in the 3rd century, and were associated with the Alamanni, were Semnones. 
* The [[Langobardi]] live a bit further from Rome's borders, in "scanty numbers" but "surrounded by a host of most powerful tribes" and kept safe "by daring the perils of war" according to Tacitus.<ref name=sect40>''Germania'' Section 40.</ref> 
* Tacitus names seven tribes who live "next" after the Langobardi, "fenced in by rivers or forests" stretching "into the remoter regions of Germany". These all worshiped [[Nertha]], or Mother Earth, whose sacred grove was on an island in the Ocean (presumably the Baltic Sea): [[Reudigni]], [[Aviones]], [[Anglii]], [[Varini]], [[Eudoses]], [[Suarini]] and [[Nuitones]].<ref name=sect40/> 
*At the mouth of the Elbe (and in the Danish peninsula), the classical authors do not place any Suevi, but rather the [[Chauci]] to the west of the Elbe, and the [[Saxons]] to the east, and in the "neck" of the peninsula.

Note that while various errors and confusions are possible, Ptolemy places the Angles and Langobardi west of the Elbe, where they may indeed have been present at some points in time, given that the Suebi were often mobile.

====East of the Elbe====
It is already mentioned above that stretching between the Elbe and the Oder, the classical authors place the Suebic Semnones. Ptolemy places the [[Silingi]] to their south in the stretch between these rivers. These Silingi appear in later history as a branch of the Vandals, and were therefore likely to be speakers of [[East Germanic]] dialects. Their name is associated with medieval [[Silesia]]. Further south on the Elbe are the Baenochaemae and between them and the Askibourgian mountains Ptolemy names a tribe called the [[Bateinoi|Batini]] (Βατεινοὶ), apparently north and/or east of the Elbe.

According to Tacitus, around the north of the Danubian Marcomanni and Quadi, "dwelling in forests and on mountain-tops", live the [[Marsigni]], and [[Buri (Germanic tribe)|Buri]], who "in their language and manner of life, resemble the Suevi".<ref name=sect43>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D43 |title=Section 43 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2014-05-01}}</ref> (Living partly subject to the Quadi are the [[Gotini]] and [[Osi (ancient tribe)|Osi]], who Tacitus says speak respectively [[Gaulish]] and [[Pannonians|Pannonian]], and are therefore not Germans.) Ptolemy also places the "[[Lugi Buri]]" in mountains, along with a tribe called the [[Corconti]]. These mountains, stretching from near the upper [[Elbe]] to the headwaters of the [[Vistula]], he calls the [[Askibourgian]] mountains. Between these mountains and the Quadi he adds several tribes, from north to south these are the [[Sidones]], [[Cotini]] (possibly Tacitus' Gotini) and the [[Visburgi]]. There is then the Orcynian (Hercyian) forest, which Ptolemy defines with relatively restricted boundaries, and then the Quadi.

Beyond this mountain range (probably the modern [[Sudetes]]) where the Marsigni and Buri lived, in the area of modern southwest Poland, Tacitus reported a multitude of tribes, the most widespread name of which was the [[Lugii]]. These included the [[Harii]], [[Helveconae]], [[Manimi]], [[Helisii]] and [[Naharvali]].<ref name="sect43"/> (Tacitus does not mention the language of the Lugii.) As mentioned above, Ptolemy categorizes the Buri amongst the Lugii, and concerning the Lugii north of the mountains, he named two large groups, the Lougoi Omanoi and the Lougoi Didounoi, who live between the "Suevus" river (probably the [[Saale]] ([[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]]: ''Solawa'') or [[Oder]] river) and the Vistula, south of the [[Burgundi]].
[[File:Vindobona Hoher Markt-79.JPG|thumb|Suebi Captive Representation in Roman bronze figure]]
These Burgundians who according to Ptolemy lived between the Baltic sea Germans and the Lugii, stretching between the Suevus and Vistula rivers, were described by Pliny the Elder (as opposed to Tacitus) as being not Suevic but [[Vandals|Vandili]], amongst whom he also included the Goths, and the Varini, both being people living north of them near the Baltic coast. Pliny's "Vandili" are generally thought to be speakers of what modern linguists refer to as [[Eastern Germanic]]. Between the coastal Saxons and inland Suebi, Ptolemy names the [[Teutonari]] and the "Viruni" (presumably the Varini of Tacitus), and further east, between the coastal Farodini and the Suebi are the [[Teutones]] and then the [[Avarni]]. Further east again, between the Burgundians and the coastal Rugiclei were the "Aelvaeones" (presumably the Helveconae of Tacitus).

====Baltic Sea====
Tacitus called the Baltic sea the Suebian sea. [[Pomponius Mela]] wrote in his ''Description of the World'' (III.3.31) beyond the Danish isles are "the farthest people of Germania, the Hermiones".

North of the Lugii, near the [[Baltic Sea]], Tacitus places the [[Goths|Gothones (Goths)]], [[Rugii]], and [[Lemovii]]. These three Germanic tribes share a tradition of having kings, and also similar arms – round shields and short swords.<ref name=sect43/> Ptolemy says that east of the Saxons, from the "Chalusus" river to the "Suevian" river are the [[Farodini]], then the [[Sidini]] up to the "Viadua" river, and after these the "Rugiclei" up to the Vistula river (probably referring to the "Rugii" of Tacitus). He does not specify if these are Suevi.

In the sea, the states of the [[Suiones]], "powerful in ships" are, according to Tacitus, Germans with the Suevic (Baltic) sea on one side and an "almost motionless" sea on the other more remote side. Modern commentators believe this refers to [[Scandinavia]].<ref>Section 44.</ref> Closely bordering on the Suiones and closely resembling them, are the tribes of the [[Sitones]].<ref name=sect45/> Ptolemy describes Scandinavia as being inhabited by [[Chaedini]] in the west, [[Favonae]] and [[Firaesi]] in the east, [[Fenni|Finni]] in the north, [[Geats|Gautae]] and [[Dauciones]] in the south, and [[Levoni]] in the middle. He does not describe them as Suebi.

Tacitus describes the non-Germanic [[Aestii]] on the eastern shore of the "Suevic Sea" (Baltic), "whose rites and fashions and style of dress are those of the Suevi, while their language is more like the British."<ref name=sect45>''Germania'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D45 Section 45]</ref> After giving this account, Tacitus says: "Here Suebia ends."<ref>Section 46.</ref> Therefore, for Tacitus ''geographic'' "Suebia" comprises the entire periphery of the [[Baltic Sea]], including within it tribes not identified as Suebi or even Germanic. On the other hand, Tacitus does clearly consider there to be not only a Suebian region, but also Suebian languages, and Suebian customs, which all contribute to making a specific tribe more or less "Suebian".<ref>Tacitus' modern editor Arthur J. Pomeroy concludes "it is clear that there is no monolithic 'Suebic' group, but a series of tribes who may share some customs (for instance, warrior burials) but also vary considerably." {{cite journal | last=Pomeroy | first=Arthur J. | title=Tacitus' Germania | journal=The Classical Review |series=New Series | volume=44 | issue=1 | pages=58–59 | year=1994 | doi=10.1017/S0009840X00290446| s2cid=246879432 }} A review in English of {{cite book | first=Gunter | last=Neumann | author2=Henning Seemann | title=Beitrage zum Verstandnis der Germania des Tacitus, Teil II: Bericht uber die Kolloquien der Kommission fur die Altertumskunde Nord- und Mitteleuropas im Jahre 1986 und 1987}} A German-language text.</ref>