Editing Stadtholder (section)

=== Dutch Republic ===
When, in 1581, during the [[Dutch Revolt]], seven of the Dutch provinces declared their independence with the [[Act of Abjuration]], the representative function of the ''stadtholder'' became obsolete in the rebellious northern Netherlands – the feudal lord himself having been abolished – but the office nevertheless continued in these provinces who now united themselves into the [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]]. The United Provinces were struggling to adapt existing feudal concepts and institutions to the new situation and tended to be conservative in this matter, as they had after all rebelled against the king to defend their ancient rights.<ref>{{cite book|first=J. H. |last=Elliott |title=Europe Divided: 1559-1598 |publisher=Harper & Row |location=London |date=1968 |pages=293–294 |asin=B000X7VPEA}}</ref> The ''stadtholder'' no longer represented the lord but became the highest executive official, appointed by the States of each province (e.g. the [[States of Holland and West Friesland]] and the [[States of Friesland]]). Although each province could assign its own ''stadtholder'', most ''stadtholder''s held appointments from several provinces at the same time. The highest executive and legislative power was normally exerted by the sovereign States of each province, but the stadtholder had some prerogatives, like appointing lower officials and sometimes having the ancient right to affirm the appointment (by [[co-option]]) of the members of [[Regenten|regent]] councils or choose ''[[burgomaster]]s'' from a shortlist of candidates. As these councils themselves appointed most members of the States, the ''stadtholder'' could very indirectly influence the general policy. In [[Zeeland]], the [[Prince of Orange|Princes of Orange]], who after the Dutch Revolt most often held the office of ''stadtholder'' there, held the dignity of ''First Noble'', and were as such a member of the States of that province, because they held the title of [[Marquis of Veere and Flushing]] as one of their patrimonial titles.

On the Republic's central 'confederal' level, the ''stadtholder'' of the provinces of Holland and Zeeland was normally also appointed [[Captain-General]] of the [[Dutch States Army]] and [[Admiral-General]] of the confederate fleet,{{sfn|Ashley|1966|p=10}} though no ''stadtholder'' ever actually commanded a fleet in battle. In the army, he could appoint officers by himself; in the navy only affirm appointments of the five admiralty councils. Legal powers of the stadtholder were thus rather limited, and by law he was a mere official. His real powers, however, were sometimes greater, especially given the martial law atmosphere of the 'permanent' [[Eighty Years War]]. [[Maurice of Orange]] after 1618 ruled as a military dictator, and [[William II of Orange]] attempted the same.

The leader of the Dutch Revolt was [[William the Silent]] (William I of Orange); he had been appointed ''stadtholder'' in 1572 by the States of the first province to rebel, Holland, as a replacement of the royal stadtholder (He had previously held the post as an appointee of Philip II.). His personal influence and reputation was subsequently associated with the office and transferred to members of his house. After his assassination, however, there was a short-lived move to install [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester]] as governor-general of [[Elizabeth I]] before Maurice in 1590 became stadtholder of five provinces,<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|editor-first=F. |editor-last=Lieber |title=Encyclopaedia americana |volume=11 |date=1854 |pages=555}}</ref> a position he would hold until his death (his cousin [[William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg]] held the post in the remaining two provinces, Friesland and Groningen).

Tensions nonetheless persisted between Orangists and republicans in the United Provinces, sometimes exploding into direct conflict. Maurice in 1618 and [[William III of England|William III of Orange]] from 1672 replaced entire city councils with their partisans to increase their power: the so-called "Changings of the Legislative" (''Wetsverzettingen''). By intimidation, the ''stadtholder''s tried to extend their right of affirmation, while they also attempted to add the remaining stadholderships like Friesland and Groningen to their other holdings.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In reaction, the regents in Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, and Overijssel, after the death of William II in 1650, appointed no ''stadtholder'',<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Stadtholder |volume=25 |page=750}}</ref> and banned his son William from the stadtholdership by an [[Act of Seclusion]], something overcome by popular feeling during the catastrophic events of 1672, the Dutch Year of Disaster (''[[Rampjaar]]''), when the future [[William III of England]] was swept to power.{{sfn|Ashley|1966|p=10–14}} After the death of William III in 1702 they again abstained from appointing a stadtholder.<ref name=EB1911/> These periods are known as the [[First Stadtholderless Period]] and the [[Second Stadtholderless Period]].

After the French invasion of 1747, the regents were forced by a popular movement to accept [[William IV, Prince of Orange]], stadtholder of [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], as stadtholder in the other provinces. On 22 November 1747, the office of ''stadtholder'' was made hereditary (''erfstadhouder'') everywhere (previously only in Friesland). As William (for the first time in the history of the Republic) was ''stadtholder'' in all provinces, his function accordingly was restyled {{lang|nl|Stadhouder-Generaal}}.

After William IV's death in 1751, his infant son was duly appointed ''stadtholder'' under the regency of his mother. The misgovernment of this regency caused much resentment, which issued in 1780 in the [[Patriots (Dutch Republic)|Patriot movement]], seeking to permanently limit the powers of the stadholderate.{{sfn|Ward|1922|p=171–172}} The Patriots first took over many city councils, then the [[States of Holland and West Friesland|States of the province of Holland]], and ultimately raised civil militias to defend their position against Orangist partisans, bringing the country to the [[Patriottentijd| brink of civil war]]. Through [[Prussian invasion of Holland|Prussian military intervention in 1787]], Prince [[William V of Orange]] was able to suppress this opposition, and many leaders of the Patriot movement went into exile in France. The stadtholderate was strengthened with the [[Act of Guarantee]] (1788).