Editing Society (section)

=== In sociology ===
{{Further|Sociology}}
In Western sociology, there are three dominant paradigms for understanding society: [[Structural functionalism|functionalism]] (also known as structural functionalism), [[Conflict theories|conflict theory]], and [[symbolic interactionism]].{{Sfn|Conerly|Holmes|Tamang|2021|pp=103-108}}

==== Functionalism ====
According to the functionalist school of thought, individuals in society work together like organs in the body to create [[Emergence|emergent]] behavior, sometimes referred to as [[collective consciousness]].{{Sfn|Conerly|Holmes|Tamang|2021|pp=103-104}} 19th century sociologists [[Auguste Comte]] and [[Émile Durkheim]], for example, believed that society constitutes a separate "level" of reality, distinct from both biological and inorganic matter. Explanations of [[Social phenomenon|social phenomena]] had therefore to be constructed within this level, individuals being merely transient occupants of comparatively stable social roles.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Macionis |first1=John J. |last2=Gerber |first2=Linda Marie |year=2011 |title=Sociology |publisher=[[Pearson Prentice Hall]] |edition=7th |location=Toronto, Canada |isbn=978-0-13-700161-3 |oclc=434559397}}</ref>

==== Conflict theory ====
Conflict theorists take the opposite view, and posit that individuals and social groups or [[social class]]es within society interact on the basis of [[Social conflict|conflict]] rather than agreement.  One prominent conflict theorist is [[Karl Marx]] who conceived of society as operating on an economic [[Base and superstructure|"base" with a "superstructure"]] of government, family, religion and culture.  Marx argues that the economic base determines the superstructure, and that throughout history, societal change has been driven by conflict between [[Proletariat|laborers]] and [[Bourgeoisie|those who own]] the [[means of production]].{{Sfn|Conerly|Holmes|Tamang|2021|pp=104-105}}

==== Symbolic interactionism ====
Symbolic interactionism is a [[Microsociology|microsociological]] theory that focuses on individuals and how the individual relates to society.{{Sfn|Conerly|Holmes|Tamang|2021|p=21, 108}}  Symbolic interactionists study humans' use of shared language to create common symbols and meanings,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Hall |first=Peter M. |editor1-last=Ritzer |editor1-first=George |year=2007 |title=Symbolic Interaction |encyclopedia=Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology |volume=10 |isbn=978-1-4051-2433-1 |lccn=2006004167 |oclc=63692691 |doi=10.1002/9781405165518.wbeoss310}}</ref> and use this frame of reference to understand how individuals interact to create symbolic worlds, and in turn, how these worlds [[Socialization|shape individual behaviors]].<ref name=":12">{{cite book |last1=West |first1=Richard L. |last2=Turner |first2=Lynn H. |title=Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application |date=2018 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-1-259-87032-3 |lccn=2016059715 |oclc=967775008 |edition=6th}}</ref>

In the latter half of the 20th century, theorists began to view society as [[Social constructionism|socially constructed]].{{Sfn|Conerly|Holmes|Tamang|2021|pp=109-110}} In this vein, sociologist [[Peter L. Berger]] describes society as "dialectic": Society is created by humans, but this creation turns in turn creates or molds humans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Berger |first=Peter L. |author-link=Peter L. Berger |year=1967 |title=The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion |publisher=Doubleday & Company, Inc. |location=Garden City, NYC |page=3 |isbn=978-0-385-07305-9 |lccn=90034844 |oclc=22736039}}</ref>

==== Non-Western views ====
[[File:Jose Rizal full.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|alt=Black and white portrait of José Rizal |[[José Rizal]], a theorist of colonial societies]]
The sociologic emphasis placed on functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism, has been criticized as [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=al-Attas |first=Syed Farid |author-link=Syed Farid al-Attas |date=March 2021 |title=Deparochialising the Canon: The Case of Sociological Theory |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/johs.12314 |journal=Journal of Historical Sociology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=13–27 |doi=10.1111/johs.12314 |s2cid=235548680 |issn=0952-1909 |lccn=89656316 |oclc=18102209 |access-date=31 January 2024 |archive-date=31 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131131620/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/johs.12314 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Malaysian sociologist [[Syed Farid al-Attas]], for example, argues that Western thinkers are particularly interested in the implications of [[modernity]], and that their analysis of non-Western cultures is therefore limited in scope.<ref name=":1" /> As examples of nonwestern thinkers who took a systematic approach to understanding society, al-Attas mentions [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406) and [[José Rizal]] (1861–1896).<ref name=":1" />

Khaldun, an [[Arabs|Arab]] living in the 14th century, understood society, along with the rest of the universe, as having "meaningful configuration", with its perceived randomness attributable to hidden causes. Khaldun conceptualized social structures as having two fundamental forms: nomadic and sedentary. Nomadic life has high social cohesion (''asabijja''), which Khaldun argued arose from kinship, shared customs, and a shared need for defense. Sedentary life, in Khaldun's view, was marked by secularization, decreased social cohesion, and increased interest in luxury.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Becker |first1=Howard |author1-link=Howard P. Becker |last2=Barnes |first2=Harry Elmer |author2-link=Harry Elmer Barnes |year=1961 |title=Social Thought from Lore to Science |chapter=The Meeting of East and West and the Advance of Secularism |publisher=[[Dover Publications]] |edition=3rd |volume=1 |location=New York, NY |pages=266–277 |lccn=61004323 |oclc=423043}}</ref> Rizal was a [[Filipinos|Filipino]] nationalist living toward the end of the [[Spanish Colonial Period (Philippines)|Spanish Colonial Period]] who theorized about colonial societies. Rizal argued that [[Laziness|indolence]], which the Spanish used to justify their colonial occupation, was instead caused by the colonial occupation. Rizal compared the pre-colonial era, when the Filipinos controlled trade routes and had higher economic activity, to the period of colonial rule, and argued that exploitation, economic disorder, and colonial policies that discouraged farming led to a decreased interest in work.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Alatas |first1=Syed Farid |author1-link=Syed Farid al-Attas |last2=Sinha |first2=Vineeta |year=2017 |title=Sociological Theory Beyond the Canon |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=London, UK |chapter=Jose Rizal (1861-1896) |isbn=978-1-137-41133-4 |lccn=2017934880 |oclc=966921499}}</ref>