Editing Sinai Peninsula (section)

==History==
===Chalcolithic===
A cave with paintings of people and animals was discovered about {{convert|30|km}} north of [[Mount Catherine]] in January 2020, dates back to the [[Chalcolithic]] Period, {{Circa|5th}}–4th millennium BCE.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newsweek.com/ancient-egyptian-cave-paintings-donkey-people-1483601 |title=Cave Covered in Ancient Egyptian Paintings of Donkeys and People Discovered by Accident |website=Newsweek |date=23 January 2020 |access-date=17 May 2020 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118182754/https://www.newsweek.com/ancient-egyptian-cave-paintings-donkey-people-1483601 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Ancient Egypt===
From the time of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] or before, the Egyptians mined [[turquoise]] in Sinai at two locations, now called by their [[Egyptian Arabic]] names [[Wadi Maghareh]] and [[Serabit el-Khadim]]. The mines were worked intermittently and on a seasonal basis for thousands of years. Modern attempts to exploit the deposits have been unprofitable. These may be the first historically attested mines.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

The fortress [[Tjaru]] in western Sinai was a place of banishment for Egyptian criminals. The Way of Horus connected it across northern Sinai with ancient [[Canaan]].

===Achaemenid Persian Period===
At the end of the time of [[Darius I]], the Great (521–486 BCE) Sinai was part of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] province of [[Abar-Nahra]], which means 'beyond the river [Euphrates]'.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/achaemenid_persian_syria.php#sthash.SnulMqGB.dpuf |title=History of Iran: Achaemenid Persian Syria 538–331 BCE; Two Centuries of Persian Rule |website=www.iranchamber.com |access-date=18 April 2019 |archive-date=23 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823030715/http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/achaemenid_persian_syria.php#sthash.SnulMqGB.dpuf |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Cambyses II|Cambyses]] successfully managed the crossing of the hostile Sinai Desert, traditionally Egypt's first and strongest line of defence, and brought the Egyptians under [[Psamtik III]], son and successor of [[Amasis II|Ahmose]], to [[Battle of Pelusium|battle at Pelusium]]. The Egyptians lost and retired to [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]; the city fell to the Persian control and the Pharaoh was carried off in captivity to [[Susa]] in Persia.

===Roman and Byzantine Periods===
[[File:Katharinenkloster Sinai BW 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] is the oldest working Christian monastery in the world and the most popular tourist attraction on the peninsula.]]
[[Rhinocorura]] ([[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] for "[[Rhinotomy|Cut-off Noses]]") and the eponymous region around it were used by [[Ptolemaid Egypt]] as a place of banishment for criminals, today known as [[Arish]].

After the death of the last [[Nabatean Kingdom|Nabatean]] king, [[Rabbel II Soter]], in 106,<ref name=SchürerMillar2015>{{cite book |last1=Schürer |first1=Emil |last2=Millar |first2=Fergus |last3=Vermes |first3=Geza |title=The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lbyFBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA583 |date=26 March 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-567-50161-5 |page=583 |access-date=24 January 2017 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031043156/https://books.google.com/books?id=lbyFBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA583 |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Roman emperor]] [[Trajan]] faced practically no resistance and conquered the kingdom on 22 March 106. With this conquest, the [[Roman Empire]] went on to control all shores of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The Sinai Peninsula became part of the Roman province of [[Arabia Petraea]].<ref name=Taylor>Taylor, Jane (2001). ''Petra And the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans''. I. B. Tauris, {{ISBN|978-1-86064-508-2}}, p. 73-74 ({{Google books|FcAoBq4_EnEC|online copy|page=73}})</ref>

[[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] on the foot of [[Mount Sinai]] was constructed by order of the Emperor [[Justinian]] between 527 and 565. Most of the Sinai Peninsula became part of the province of [[Palaestina Salutaris]] in the 6th century.

===Ayyubid Period===
During the [[Crusades]] it was under the control of [[Fatimid Caliphate]]. Later, Sultan [[Saladin]] abolished the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and took this region under his control too. It was the military route from Cairo to Damascus during the Crusades. And in order to secure this route, he built a citadel on the [[Pharaoh's Island|island of Pharaoh]] (near present Taba) known by his name '[[Castle of Saladin, Pharaoh's Island|Saladin's Citadel]]'.

===Mamluk and Ottoman Periods===
[[File:A camping-place in the wilderness of Sinai.jpg|thumb|left|The wilderness of Sinai, 1862]]
[[File:1869 Ordnance Survey of the Peninsula of Sinai.jpg|thumb|The first scientifically accurate map of the peninsula: the 1869 Ordnance Survey of the Peninsula of Sinai]]

The peninsula was governed as part of Egypt under the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] from 1260 until 1517, when the Ottoman Sultan, [[Selim I|Selim the Grim]], defeated the Egyptians at the [[Battle of Marj Dabiq|Battles of Marj Dabiq]] and [[Battle of Ridaniya|al-Raydaniyya]], and [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|incorporated Egypt into the Ottoman Empire]]. From then until 1906, Sinai was administered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] provincial government of the [[Pashalik of Egypt|''Pashalik'' of Egypt]], even following the establishment of the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]]'s rule over the rest of Egypt in 1805.

===British control===
In 1906, the [[Ottoman Porte]] formally transferred administration of Sinai to the [[Khedivate of Egypt]], which essentially meant that it fell under the control of the [[British Empire]], who had [[History of Egypt under the British|occupied and largely controlled Egypt]] since the 1882 [[Anglo-Egyptian War]]. The border imposed by the British runs in an almost straight line from [[Rafah]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] shore to [[Taba (Egypt)|Taba]] on the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]. This line has served as the de jure eastern border of Egypt ever since.

===Israeli invasions and occupation===
===1956 war===
In 1956, Egypt nationalised the [[Suez Canal]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/egypt-nationalizes-the-suez-canal |title=Egypt nationalizes the Suez Canal |website=History |access-date=18 April 2019 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203191115/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/egypt-nationalizes-the-suez-canal |url-status=live }}</ref> a waterway marking the boundary between Egyptian territory in [[Africa]] and the Sinai Peninsula. Thereafter, [[Israel]]i ships were prohibited from using the Canal,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/26/newsid_2701000/2701603.stm |title=1956: Egypt Seizes Suez Canal |publisher=BBC |date=26 July 1956 |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317034109/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/26/newsid_2701000/2701603.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> owing to the state of war between the two states. Egypt also prohibited ships from using Egyptian territorial waters on the eastern side of the peninsula to travel to and from Israel, effectively imposing a blockade on the Israeli port of [[Eilat]]. In October 1956, in what is known in Egypt as the [[Suez Crisis|Tripartite Aggression]], [[Israel Defense Forces]] troops, aided by the [[United Kingdom]] and [[French Fourth Republic|France]] (which sought to reverse the nationalization and regain control over the Suez Canal), invaded Sinai and occupied much of the peninsula within a few days. In March 1957, Israel withdrew its forces from Sinai, following strong pressure from the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. Thereafter, the [[United Nations Emergency Force]] (UNEF) was stationed in Sinai to prevent any further conflict in the Sinai.

===1967 war===
{{see also|Israeli occupation of the Sinai Peninsula}}
[[File:EgyptIsraelBorderEilat.JPG|thumb|Egypt-Israel border, looking north from the [[Eilat]] Mountains (2008)]]
[[File:UNEF.Canada.Panama.74.jpeg|thumb|upright|Canadian and Panamanian [[United Nations Emergency Force|UNEF]] [[UN peacekeepers]] in Sinai, 1974]]

On 16 May 1967, Egypt ordered the UNEF out of Sinai<ref>{{cite book |author=Samir A. Mutawi |title=Jordan in the 1967 War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9bBJusRJIMC |date=18 July 2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-52858-0 |page=93 |quote=Although Eshkol denounced the Egyptians, his response to this development was a model of moderation. His speech on 21 May demanded that Nasser withdraw his forces from Sinai but made no mention of the removal of UNEF from the Straits nor of what Israel would do if they were closed to Israeli shipping. The next day Nasser announced to an astonished world that henceforth the Straits were, indeed, closed to all Israeli ships |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031043157/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9bBJusRJIMC |url-status=live }}</ref> and reoccupied it militarily. Secretary-General [[U Thant]] eventually complied and ordered the withdrawal without Security Council authorisation. In the course of the [[Six-Day War]] that broke out shortly thereafter, Israel occupied the entire [[Israeli occupation of the Sinai Peninsula|Sinai Peninsula]], and [[Gaza Strip]] from Egypt, the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|West Bank]] (including [[East Jerusalem]]) from [[Jordan]] (which [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|Jordan had controlled since 1949]]), and the [[Golan Heights]] from [[Syria]]. The Suez Canal, the east bank of which was now occupied by Israel, was closed. Israel commenced efforts at large scale [[Israeli settlement]] in the Sinai Peninsula.

Following the Israeli conquest of Sinai, Egypt launched the [[War of Attrition]] (1967–70) aimed at forcing Israel to withdraw from the Sinai. The war saw protracted conflict in the Suez Canal Zone, ranging from limited to large-scale combat. Israeli shelling of the cities of [[Port Said]], [[Ismailia]], and [[Suez]] on the west bank of the canal, led to high civilian casualties (including the virtual destruction of Suez), and contributed to the flight of 700,000<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spencer |first1=Tucker |title=Encyclopedia or the Arab-Israeli Conflict |page=175}}</ref> Egyptian internal refugees. Ultimately, the war concluded in 1970 with no change in the front line.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1337698/War-of-Attrition |title=War of Attrition |date=19 October 2023 |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-date=5 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505010625/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1337698/War-of-Attrition |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 6 October 1973, Egypt commenced [[Operation Badr (1973)|Operation Badr]] to retake the Sinai, while Syria launched a simultaneous operation to retake the Golan Heights,{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} thereby beginning the [[Yom Kippur War]] (known in Egypt as the ''October War''). Egyptian engineering forces built [[pontoon bridge]]s to cross the Suez Canal, and stormed the [[Bar Lev Line]], Israel's defensive line along the Suez Canal's east bank. Though the Egyptians maintained control of most of the east bank of the Suez Canal, in the later stages of the war, the [[Israeli military]] crossed the southern section of the Suez Canal, cutting off the [[Third Army (Egypt)|Egyptian 3rd Army]], and occupied a section of the Suez Canal's west bank. The war ended following a mutually agreed-upon ceasefire. After the war, as part of the subsequent [[Sinai Interim Agreement|Sinai Disengagement Agreements]], Israel withdrew from immediate proximity with the Suez Canal, with Egypt agreeing to permit passage of Israeli ships. The canal was reopened in 1975, with President [[Anwar Sadat]] leading the first convoy through the canal aboard an [[Egyptian Navy]] destroyer.

===1979–1982 Israeli withdrawal===
In 1979, Egypt and Israel signed a [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|peace treaty]] in which Israel agreed to withdraw from the entirety of the Sinai Peninsula. Israel subsequently withdrew in several stages, ending in 1982. The Israeli pull-out involved dismantling almost all Israeli settlements, including the settlement of [[Yamit]] in north-eastern Sinai. The exception was that the coastal city of [[Sharm el-Sheikh]] (which the Israelis had founded as [[Ofira]] during their occupation of the Sinai Peninsula) was not dismantled. The Treaty allows monitoring of Sinai by the [[Multinational Force and Observers]], and limits the number of [[Egyptian military]] forces in the peninsula.

====Sinai peacekeeping zones====
[[File:Sinai MFO.PNG|thumb|The Sinai Peninsula security zones which delineate Egypt, Israel and [[Multinational Force and Observers]]' zone of operations]]

Article 2 of Annex I of the Peace Treaty called for the Sinai Peninsula to be divided into zones. Within these zones, Egypt and Israel were permitted varying degrees of military buildup:

* Zone A: Between the [[Suez Canal]] and '''Line A'''. Egypt is permitted a mechanized infantry division with a total of 22,000 troops in Zone A.
* Zone B: Between '''Line A''' and '''Line B'''. Egypt is permitted four border security battalions to support the civilian police in Zone B.
* Zone C: Between '''Line B''' and the Egypt–Israel border. Only the [[Multinational Force and Observers|MFO]] and the Egyptian civilian police are permitted within Zone C.
* Zone D: Between the Egypt–Israel border and '''Line D'''. Israel is permitted four infantry battalions in Zone D.

===Early 21st century security issues===
Since the early 2000s, Sinai has been the site of several [[Terrorism in Egypt|terror attacks]] against [[Tourism in Egypt|tourists]], the majority of whom are Egyptian. Investigations have shown that these were mainly motivated by a resentment of the poverty faced by many [[Bedouin]] in the area. Attacking the tourist industry was viewed as a method of damaging the industry so that the government would pay more attention to their situation.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/752/fr4.htm |title=Shock in Sharm |date=23 July 2005 |author=Serene Assir |work=Al-Ahram Weekly |access-date=29 March 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924125054/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/752/fr4.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> (See [[2004 Sinai bombings]], [[2005 Sharm El Sheikh bombings]] and [[2006 Dahab bombings]]). Since the [[2011 Egyptian revolution]], unrest has become more prevalent in the area including the [[August 2012 Sinai attack]] in which 16 Egyptian soldiers were killed by militants. (See [[Sinai insurgency]].)

Also on the rise are [[Refugee kidnappings in Sinai|kidnappings of refugees]]. According to Meron Estifanos, Eritrean refugees are often kidnapped by Bedouin in the northern Sinai, tortured, raped, and only released after paying a large ransom.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asmarino.com/alewana/2038-close-the-torture-houses-in-north-sinai-and-egypt |title=Close the Torture Houses in North Sinai and Egypt |website=[AI] Asmarino Independent |date=13 March 2014 |language=en-GB |access-date=18 April 2019 |archive-date=4 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704101108/http://asmarino.com/alewana/2038-close-the-torture-houses-in-north-sinai-and-egypt |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>''Sound of Torture'' documentary</ref>

Under President [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi|el-Sisi]], Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the [[Egypt–Gaza border|border to the Gaza Strip]], including the dismantling of tunnels between Gaza and Sinai.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/04/egypt-sinai-gaza-tunnels-sanctions-sisi-terrorist.html |title=Egypt discovers record-length smuggling tunnel |last=Fouad |first=Ahmed |date=17 April 2015 |website=Al-Monitor |access-date=18 April 2019 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206003305/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/04/egypt-sinai-gaza-tunnels-sanctions-sisi-terrorist.html |url-status=live }}</ref>