Editing Second Punic War (section)

== Italy ==

=== Hannibal crosses the Alps, 218 BC ===
{{main|Hannibal's crossing of the Alps}}
[[File:Hannibal's Travels during the Second Punic War.png|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=a map of the western Mediterranean showing the route followed by the Carthaginians from Iberia to Italy|{{center|Hannibal's route from Iberia to Italy}}]]
During 218{{nbs}}BC there was some naval skirmishing in the waters around Sicily; the Romans [[Battle of Lilybaeum|repulsed a Carthaginian attack]]{{sfn|Briscoe|2006|p=61}}{{sfn|Edwell|2015|p=327}} and [[Capture of Malta (218 BC)|captured the island of Malta]].{{sfn|Castillo|2006|p=25}} In Cisalpine Gaul (modern northern Italy), the major [[Gauls|Gallic]] tribes attacked the Roman colonies there, causing the settlers to flee to their previously established colony of Mutina (modern [[Modena]]), where they were besieged. A Roman relief force broke through the siege, but was then ambushed and itself besieged. An army had previously been raised by the Romans to campaign in Iberia, but the [[Roman Senate]] detached one Roman and one allied legion from it to send to north Italy. Recruiting fresh troops to replace these delayed the army's departure for Iberia until September.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=151–152}} At the same time a Roman army in Sicily under the consul [[Tiberius Sempronius Longus (consul 218 BC)|Sempronius Longus]] was preparing for an invasion of Africa.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|p=284}}

Meanwhile, Hannibal assembled a Carthaginian army in New Carthage (modern [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]]) and led it northwards along the Iberian coast in May or June. It entered Gaul and took an inland route, to avoid the Roman allies to the south.{{sfn|Mahaney|2008|p=221}} At the [[battle of the Rhône Crossing]], Hannibal defeated a force of local Gauls which sought to bar his way.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=161–162}} A Roman fleet carrying the Iberian-bound army landed at Rome's ally [[Massalia]] (modern [[Marseille]]) at the mouth of the Rhone,{{sfn|Fronda|2015|p=252}} but Hannibal evaded the Romans and continued to Italy.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|p=291}} 

The Carthaginians reached the foot of the Alps by late autumn and crossed them in 15 days, surmounting the difficulties of climate, terrain{{sfn|Mahaney|2008|p=221}} and the [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla warfare tactics]] of the native Ligurians. Hannibal arrived in Cisalpine Gaul with 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and an unknown number of elephants{{snd}}the survivors of the 37 with which he left Iberia{{sfn|Erdkamp|2015|p=71}}{{sfn|Hoyos|2015b|p=107}}{{snd}} some time in November; the Romans had already gone into their winter quarters. Hannibal's surprise entry into the Italian peninsula led to the cancellation of Rome's planned campaign for the year: an invasion of Africa.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|pp=283–284}}

=== Carthaginian victories, 218–216 BC ===
[[File:Hannibal Barca bust from Capua photo.jpg|alt=a black and white photograph of a bronze head depicting Hannibal|thumb|{{center|Hannibal, depicted in the [[Capuan bust of Hannibal|Capuan bust]]}}]]
Shortly after arriving in Italy the Carthaginians captured the chief city of the hostile [[Taurini]] (in the area of modern [[Turin]]) and seized its food stocks.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=171}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=168}} In late November 218{{nbs}}BC the Carthaginian cavalry routed the cavalry and light infantry of the Romans at the [[battle of Ticinus]].{{sfn|Fronda|2015|p=243}} As a result, most of the Gallic tribes declared for the Carthaginian cause and Hannibal's army grew to more than 40,000 men.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|p=284}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=177–178}} The Senate ordered the army in Sicily north to join the force already facing Hannibal, thus abandoning the plan to invade Africa.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|p=284}} The combined Roman force under the command of Sempronius was lured into combat by Hannibal on ground of his choosing at the [[battle of the Trebia]]. The Carthaginians encircled the Romans{{sfn|Fronda|2015|pp=243–244}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=175–176}} and only 10,000 out of 40,000 were able to fight their way to safety. Having secured his position in Cisalpine Gaul by this victory, Hannibal quartered his troops for the winter among the Gauls. The latter joined his army in large numbers, bringing it up to 50,000 men.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|p=284}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=175–176, 193}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=270}}

There was shock when news of the defeat reached Rome, but this calmed once Sempronius arrived, to preside over the consular elections in the usual manner.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=181}} The consuls-elect recruited further legions, both Roman and from Rome's Latin allies; reinforced Sardinia and Sicily against the possibility of Carthaginian raids or invasion; placed garrisons at [[Taranto|Tarentum]] and other places for similar reasons; built a fleet of 60 [[quinquereme]]s; and established supply depots at [[Ariminum]] and [[Arretium]] in preparation for marching north later in the year.{{sfn|Lazenby|1998|p=58}} Two armies of four legions each, two Roman and two allied but with stronger than usual cavalry contingents,{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=181}} were formed. One was stationed at Arretium and one on the [[Adriatic]] coast; they would be able to block Hannibal's possible advance into central Italy and were positioned to move north to operate in Cisalpine Gaul.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|p=285}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=182}}

In early spring 217{{nbs}}BC the Carthaginians crossed the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]] unopposed, taking a difficult but unguarded route.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=184}} Hannibal attempted to draw the main Roman army under [[Gaius Flaminius (consul 223 BC)|Gaius Flaminius]] into a pitched battle by devastating the area they had been sent to protect{{sfn|Liddell Hart|1967|p=45}} provoking Flaminius into a hasty pursuit. Hannibal set an ambush{{sfn|Fronda|2015|p=244}} and in the [[battle of Lake Trasimene]] completely defeated the Roman army, killing 15,000 Romans,{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=190}} including Flaminius,{{sfn|Fronda|2015|p=244}} and taking 10,000 [[Prisoner of war|prisoners]]. A cavalry force of 4,000 from the other Roman army was also defeated at the [[battle of Umbrian Lake]] and annihilated.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=190}} The prisoners were badly treated if they were Romans; captured Latin allies were well treated by the Carthaginians and many were freed and sent back to their cities, in the expectation they would speak well of Carthaginian martial prowess and of their treatment.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=270}}{{sfn|Lomas|2015|p=243}} Hannibal hoped some of these allies could be persuaded to [[Defection|defect]].{{sfn|Fronda|2015|p=246}}

[[File:N26FabiusCunctator (cropped).jpg|upright=0.6|thumb|alt= colour photograph of a white statue of a man in ancient Roman armour|{{center|A 1777 statue of Fabius}}]]

The Carthaginians continued their march through [[Etruria]], then [[Umbria]], to the Adriatic coast, then turned south into [[Apulia]],{{sfn|Fronda|2015|p=247}} hoping to win over some of the ethnic Greek and [[Ancient peoples of Italy|Italic]] cities of southern Italy.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|p=285}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1998|p=86}} News of the defeat again caused a panic in Rome. The head of the embassy that was sent to Carthage right before the war broke out in 218 BC, Quintus Fabius Maximus, was elected [[Roman dictator|dictator]] by the Roman Assembly and adopted the "[[Fabian strategy]]" of avoiding pitched battles, relying instead on low-level harassment to wear the invader down, until Rome could rebuild its military strength. Hannibal was left largely free to ravage Apulia for the next year.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=279}}{{sfn|Briscoe|2006|p=50}} 

Fabius was unpopular at this period with parts of the Roman army, public and the senate, for avoiding battle while Italy was being devastated by the enemy: there was awareness that his tactics would not lead to a quick end to the war.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|p=285}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=195–196}} Hannibal marched through the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping the devastation would draw Fabius into battle, but Fabius refused.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=184–188}} The Roman populace derided Fabius as "the Delayer" (in [[Latin]], {{lang|la|Cunctator}}) and in 216 BC elected new consuls: [[Gaius Terentius Varro]], who advocated pursuing a more aggressive war strategy, and [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (consul 219 BC)|Lucius Aemilius Paullus]], who advocated a strategy somewhere between Fabius's and that suggested by Varro.{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|p=286}} 

In the spring of 216 BC Hannibal seized the large supply depot at [[Cannae]] on the Apulian plain. The Roman Senate authorised the raising of double-sized armies by Varro and Paullus, a force of 86,000 men, the largest in Roman history up to that point.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=191, 194}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=198–199}} Paullus and Varro marched southward to confront Hannibal and encamped {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} away. Hannibal accepted battle on the open plain between the armies in the [[battle of Cannae]]. The Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's deliberately weak centre, but Libyan heavy infantry on the wings swung around their advance, menacing their flanks.{{sfn|Fronda|2015|p=245}} [[Hasdrubal, commander of the service corps|Hasdrubal Gisco]]{{#tag:ref|Not the same man as Hasdrubal Barca, one of Hannibal's younger brothers.{{sfn|Carey|2007|p=64}}|group=note}} led the Carthaginian cavalry on the left wing and routed the Roman cavalry opposite, then swept around the rear of the Romans to attack their cavalry on the other wing. The heavily outnumbered Carthaginian infantry held out until Hasdrubal charged into the legions from behind. As a result, the Roman infantry was surrounded with no means of escape. At least 67,500 Romans were killed or captured.{{sfn|Fronda|2015|p=245}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=192–194}}{{sfn|Carey|2007|p=64}}

Miles describes Cannae as "Rome's greatest military disaster".{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=279}} Toni Ñaco del Hoyo describes the Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae as the three "great military calamities" suffered by the Romans in the first three years of the war.{{sfn|Ñaco del Hoyo|2015|p=377}} Brian Carey writes that these three defeats brought Rome to the brink of collapse.{{sfn|Carey|2007|p=2}} Within a few weeks of Cannae a Roman army of 25,000 was ambushed by [[Boii]] Gauls in Cisalpine Gaul at the [[battle of Silva Litana]] and annihilated.{{sfn|Roberts|2017|pp=vi–1x}} Fabius became consul in 215 BC and was re-elected in 214 BC.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=227}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1998|p=94}}

=== Roman allies defect, 216–214 BC ===
Little has survived of Polybius's account of Hannibal's army in Italy after Cannae. Livy gives a fuller record, but according to Goldsworthy "his reliability is often suspect", especially with regard to his descriptions of battles; many modern historians agree, but nevertheless his is the best surviving source for this part of the war.{{sfn|Lazenby|1998|p=87}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=222}}{{sfn|Sabin|1996|p=62}}

Several of the city states in southern Italy allied with Hannibal, or were captured when pro-Carthaginian factions betrayed their defences. These included the large city of [[Capua]] and the major port city of Tarentum (modern Taranto). Two of the major [[Samnium|Samnite]] tribes also joined the Carthaginian cause. By 214{{nbs}}BC the bulk of southern Italy had turned against Rome, although there were many exceptions and the majority of Rome's allies in central Italy remained loyal. All except the smallest towns were too well fortified for Hannibal to take by assault, and blockade could be a long-drawn-out affair, or if the target was a port, impossible. Carthage's new allies felt little sense of community with Carthage, or even with each other. They increased the number of places which Hannibal's army was expected to defend from Roman retribution, but provided relatively few fresh troops to assist him in doing so. Such Italian forces as were raised resisted operating away from their home cities and performed poorly when they did.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=222–226}}

[[File:Second Punic war (cropped).png|thumb|upright=0.85|alt=a map of southern peninsular Italy showing the maximum extent of Carthaginian control|{{center|Hannibal's allies in southern Italy {{circa|213}}{{nbs}}BC, shown in blue}}]]

An important part of Hannibal's campaign in Italy was to attempt to fight the Romans by using local resources; raising recruits from among the local population. His subordinate Hanno was able to raise troops in Samnium in 214 BC, but the Romans intercepted these new levies in the [[Battle of Beneventum (214 BC)|battle of Beneventum]] and eliminated them before they rendezvoused with Hannibal. Hannibal could win allies, but defending them against the Romans was a new and difficult problem, as the Romans could still field multiple armies, which in total greatly outnumbered his own forces.{{sfn|Rawlings|2015|pp=312–316}}

The greatest gain was the second largest city of Italy, Capua, when Hannibal's army marched into [[Campania]] in 216 BC. The inhabitants of Capua held limited Roman citizenship and the aristocracy was linked to the Romans via marriage and friendship, but the possibility of becoming the supreme city of Italy after the evident Roman disasters proved too strong a temptation. The treaty between them and Hannibal can be described as an agreement of friendship, since the Capuans had no obligations.{{sfn|Hoyos|2015b|pp=128–129}} When the port city of [[Locri]] defected to Carthage in the summer of 215{{nbs}}BC it was immediately used to reinforce the Carthaginian forces in Italy with soldiers, supplies and war elephants.{{sfn|Lazenby|1998|p=98}} It was the only time during the war Carthage reinforced Hannibal.{{sfn|Erdkamp|2015|p=75}} A second force, under Hannibal's youngest brother [[Mago Barca|Mago]], was meant to land in Italy in 215{{nbs}}BC but was diverted to Iberia after a major Carthaginian defeat there.{{sfn|Lazenby|1998|p=98}}{{sfn|Barceló|2015|p=370}}

Meanwhile, the Romans took drastic steps to raise new legions: enrolling slaves, criminals and those who did not meet the usual property qualification. By early 215{{nbs}}BC they were fielding at least 12 legions; by 214{{nbs}}BC 18; and by 213{{nbs}}BC 22. By 212 BC the full complement of the legions deployed would have been in excess of 100,000 men, plus, as always, a similar number of allied troops. The majority were deployed in southern Italy in field armies of approximately 20,000 men each. This was insufficient to challenge Hannibal's army in open battle, but sufficient to force him to concentrate his forces and to hamper his movements.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=226–227}}

=== Macedonia, Sardinia and Sicily ===
During 215{{nbs}}BC the Macedonian king, [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]], [[Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty|pledged his support]] to Hannibal,{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=243}} initiating the [[First Macedonian War]] against Rome in 215{{nbs}}BC. The Romans were concerned that the Macedonians would attempt to cross the [[Strait of Otranto]] and land in Italy. They strongly reinforced their navy in the area and despatched a legion to stand guard, and the threat petered out. In 211{{nbs}}BC Rome contained the Macedonians by allying with the [[Aetolian League]], a coalition of Greek city states which was already at war with Macedonia. In 205{{nbs}}BC this war ended with a negotiated peace.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=253–260}}

A rebellion in support of the Carthaginians broke out on Sardinia in 213{{nbs}}BC, but it was quickly put down by the Romans.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=288}}

[[File:Archimedes before his death with the Roman soldier, Roman mosaic.jpg|thumb|alt=a colourful mosaic of a sword-armed soldier gesturing to a seated man in ancient-style robes|{{center|Archimedes before being killed by the Roman soldier – copy of a Roman mosaic from the 2nd century}}]]

Prior to 215 BC Sicily remained firmly in Roman hands, blocking the ready seaborne reinforcement and resupply of Hannibal from Carthage. [[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II]], the old tyrant of Syracuse of forty-five-years standing and a staunch Roman ally, died in 215{{nbs}}BC and his successor [[Hieronymus of Syracuse|Hieronymus]] was discontented with his situation. Hannibal negotiated a treaty whereby Syracuse came over to Carthage, at the price of making the whole of Sicily a Syracusan possession. The Syracusan army proved no match for a Roman army led by [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Claudius Marcellus]] and by spring 213{{nbs}}BC [[Siege of Syracuse (213–212 BC)|Syracuse was besieged]].{{sfn|Edwell|2015|pp=327–328}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=200}} Both Polybius' and Livy's accounts of the siege focus on [[Archimedes]]' invention of war machines to counteract Roman siege warfare, which was already made difficult by the strong defences of the city.{{sfn|Edwell|2015|p=328}}

A large Carthaginian army led by [[Himilco (fl. 3rd century BC)|Himilco]] was sent to relieve the city in 213{{nbs}}BC{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=288}}{{sfn|Edwell|2015|p=329}} and several further Sicilian cities deserted the Romans.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=288}} In the spring of 212{{nbs}}BC the Romans stormed Syracuse in a surprise night assault and captured several districts of the city. Meanwhile, the Carthaginian army was crippled by [[Plague (disease)|plague]]. After the Carthaginians failed to resupply the city, the rest of Syracuse fell in the autumn of 212{{nbs}}BC; Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=264–266}}

Carthage sent more reinforcements to Sicily in 211{{nbs}}BC and went on the offensive. In 211 BC Hannibal sent a force of Numidian cavalry to Sicily, which was led by the skilled Liby-Phoenician officer Mottones, who inflicted heavy losses on the Roman army through hit-and-run attacks. A fresh Roman army attacked the main Carthaginian stronghold on the island, [[Agrigentum]], in 210{{nbs}}BC and the city was betrayed to the Romans by a discontented Carthaginian officer. The remaining Carthaginian-controlled towns then surrendered or were taken through force or treachery{{sfn|Edwell|2015|p=330}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=266–267}} and the Sicilian grain supply to Rome and its armies was resumed.{{sfn|Rawlings|2015|p=311}}

=== Italy, 213–208 BC ===
For 11 years after Cannae the war surged around southern Italy as cities went over to the Carthaginians or were taken by subterfuge and the Romans recaptured them by siege or by suborning factions within to give them entry. Hannibal repeatedly defeated Roman armies, but wherever his main army was not active the Romans threatened Carthaginian-supporting towns or sought battle with Carthaginian or Carthaginian-allied detachments; frequently with success. By 208{{nbs}}BC many of the cities and territories which had joined the Carthaginian cause had returned to their Roman allegiance.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=222–238}}

Fabius captured the Carthaginian-allied town [[Arpi]] in 213 BC.{{sfn|Rawlings|2015|p=312}} In 212 BC Hannibal destroyed the Roman army of Centenius Penula at the [[battle of the Silarus]] in northwest Lucania.{{sfn|Dupuy and Dupuy|1993|p=75}} Later the same year, Hannibal defeated another Roman army at the [[Battle of Herdonia (212 BC)|battle of Herdonia]], with 16,000 men lost from a force of 18,000.{{sfn|Hoyos|2015b|p=85}}{{sfn|Fronda|2015|p=253}} Despite these losses, the Romans [[Siege of Capua (211 BC)|besieged Capua]], the Carthaginians' key ally in Italy.{{sfn|Rawlings|2015|pp=299–300}} Hannibal offered battle to the Romans; Livy's account of the subsequent fighting is unclear, but the Romans seem to have suffered heavy casualties while the Carthaginians were unable to lift the siege. Hannibal then assaulted the Romans' siege works, but was again unable to relieve the city. In 211{{nbs}}BC Hannibal again offered battle to the besieging Roman forces, this time they declined to leave their fortifications. In desperation Hannibal again assaulted them and again failed to break through. He next marched his army towards Rome, hoping to compel the Romans to abandon the siege to defend it; however, the besieging force stayed in place and Capua fell soon afterwards. The city was stripped of its political autonomy and placed under Roman appointees.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=221, 233–235}}

In 210 the Carthaginians caught a Roman army off guard outside Herdonia, heavily defeating it after its commander [[Battle of Herdonia (210 BC)|accepted battle]].{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=235–236}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=256}} Livy then has Hannibal fighting the inconclusive [[battle of Numistro]], although modern historians doubt his account.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=256}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1998|p=171}} The Romans stayed on Hannibal's heels, fighting another [[Battle of Canusium|pitched battle at Canusium]] in 209 BC and again suffering heavy losses.{{sfn|Rawlings|2015|p=302}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=258}} This battle enabled another Roman army to approach Tarentum and [[Battle of Tarentum (209 BC)|capture it by treachery]].{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=235–236}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=258}}

=== Italy, 207–203 BC ===
In the spring of 207{{nbs}}BC [[Hasdrubal Barca]] repeated the feat of his elder brother by marching an army across the Alps. He invaded Cisalpine Gaul with an army of 35,000 men, intending to join forces with Hannibal, but Hannibal was unaware of his presence. The Romans facing Hannibal in southern Italy tricked him into believing the whole Roman army was still in camp, while a large portion marched north under the consul [[Gaius Claudius Nero|Claudius Nero]]. They reinforced the Romans under the second consul, [[Marcus Livius Salinator|Marcus Salinator]], who were already facing Hasdrubal. This combined Roman force attacked at the [[battle of the Metaurus]] and destroyed the Carthaginian army, killing Hasdrubal. This battle confirmed Roman dominance in Italy and marked the end of their Fabian strategy. Without the expected reinforcement Hannibal's forces were compelled to evacuate allied towns and withdraw to [[Bruttium]].{{sfn|Zimmermann|2015|pp=289–290}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=304–305}}

In 205{{nbs}}BC Mago Barca, another of Hannibal's younger brothers, landed in [[Genoa|Genua]] in north-west Italy with the remnants of his Spanish army. It soon received Gallic and Ligurian reinforcements. Mago's arrival in the north of the Italian peninsula was followed by Hannibal's inconclusive [[battle of Crotona]] in 204{{nbs}}BC in the far south of the peninsula. Mago marched his reinforced army towards the lands of Carthage's main Gallic allies in Cisalpine Gaul, but was checked by a large Roman army and defeated at the [[battle of Insubria]] in 203{{nbs}}BC.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=286–287}}

After a Roman army invaded the Carthaginian homeland in 204{{nbs}}BC, defeating the Carthaginians in two major battles and winning the allegiance of the Numidian kingdoms of North Africa, Hannibal and the remnants of his army were recalled.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=310}} They sailed from [[Crotone|Croton]]{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=244}} and landed at Carthage with 15,000–20,000 experienced veterans. Mago was also recalled; he died of wounds on the voyage and some of his ships were intercepted by the Romans,{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=312}} but 12,000 of his troops reached Carthage.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=289}}