Editing Rwanda (section)

== Politics and government ==
{{main|Politics of Rwanda|Foreign relations of Rwanda|Rwanda Defence Force}}
[[File:Paul Kagame 2014.jpg|thumb|upright|Rwandan President [[Paul Kagame]]|alt=Photograph of Paul Kagame, taken in Busan, South Korea, in 2014]]
Rwanda is a ''[[de facto]]'' [[one-party state]]<ref name="Yale University Press">{{cite book |last=Thomson |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Thomson |title=Rwanda: From Genocide to Precarious Peace |date=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-23591-3 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RbxODwAAQBAJ&q=one-party+state |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022072324/https://books.google.com/books?id=RbxODwAAQBAJ&q=one-party+state |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The Conversation">{{cite news |last1=Sebarenzi |first1=Joseph |last2=Twagiramungu |first2=Noel |title=Rwanda's economic growth could be derailed by its autocratic regime |url=https://theconversation.com/rwandas-economic-growth-could-be-derailed-by-its-autocratic-regime-114649 |access-date=5 September 2023 |work=The Conversation |date=8 April 2019 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203956/https://theconversation.com/rwandas-economic-growth-could-be-derailed-by-its-autocratic-regime-114649 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Handbook of Restorative Justice">{{cite book |last=Waldorf |first=Lars |title=Handbook of Restorative Justice |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-34682-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jGV_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT619 ?] |chapter=Rwanda's failing experiment in restorative justice}}</ref><ref name="TWQ">{{cite journal |last=Beswick |first=Danielle |title=Aiding State Building and Sacrificing Peace Building? The Rwanda–UK relationship 1994–2011 |journal=Third World Quarterly |date=2011 |volume=32 |issue=10 |pages=1911–1930 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2011.610593 |s2cid=153404360| issn=0143-6597 }}</ref><ref name="University of Chicago Press">{{cite book |last=Bowman |first=Warigia |title=Four. Imagining a Modern Rwanda: Sociotechnological Imaginaries, Information Technology, and the Postgenocide State |date=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-27666-3 |page=87 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226276663-004/html?lang=en |doi=10.7208/9780226276663-004 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |access-date=5 September 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203958/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226276663-004/html?lang=en |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal |last=Reyntjens |first=Filip |title=Behind the Façade of Rwanda's Elections |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |date=2011 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=64–69 |jstor=43133887 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43133887 |issn=1526-0054 |access-date=5 September 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203956/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43133887 |url-status=live}}</ref> ruled by the [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]] (RPF) and its leader [[Paul Kagame]] continuously since the end of the civil war in 1994.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stroh |first1=Alexander |title=Electoral rules of the authoritarian game: undemocratic effects of proportional representation in Rwanda |journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies |date=2010 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1080/17531050903550066|s2cid=154910536}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matfess |first1=Hilary |title=Rwanda and Ethiopia: Developmental Authoritarianism and the New Politics of African Strong Men |journal=African Studies Review |date=2015 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=181–204 |doi=10.1017/asr.2015.43|s2cid=143013060 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although Rwanda is nominally democratic, elections are manipulated in various ways, which include banning opposition parties, arresting or assassinating critics, and [[electoral fraud]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Waldorf |first=Lars |editor-last=Themnér |editor-first=Anders |title=Warlord Democrats in Africa: Ex-Military Leaders and Electoral Politics |date=2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic / [[Nordic Africa Institute]] |isbn=978-1-78360-248-3 |url=http://files.webb.uu.se/uploader/1576/Warlord-Democrats-in-Africa.pdf#page=79 |chapter=The Apotheosis of a Warlord: Paul Kagame |access-date=27 September 2023 |archive-date=27 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127084243/http://files.webb.uu.se/uploader/1576/Warlord-Democrats-in-Africa.pdf#page=79 |url-status=live}}</ref> The RPF is a [[Tutsi]]-dominated party but receives support from other communities as well.{{sfn|Clark|2010}}

The constitution was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional constitution which had been in place since 1994.{{sfn|Panapress|2003}} The constitution mandates a multi-party system of government, with politics based on democracy and elections.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 52}} However, the constitution places conditions on how political parties may operate. Article 54 states that "political organizations are prohibited from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, sex, religion or any other division which may give rise to discrimination".{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 54}} The [[president of Rwanda]] is the [[head of state]],{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 98}} and has broad powers including creating policy in conjunction with the [[Cabinet of Rwanda]],{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 117}} commanding the [[Rwandan Defence Forces|armed forces]],{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 110}} negotiating and ratifying treaties,{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 189}} signing presidential orders,{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 112}} and declaring war or a state of emergency.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 110}} The president is elected [[Elections in Rwanda|every four years]],{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=articles 100–101}} and appoints the [[Prime Minister of Rwanda|prime minister]] and all other members of the Cabinet.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 116}} The [[Parliament of Rwanda|Parliament]] consists of two [[Legislative chamber|chambers]]. It makes legislation and is empowered by the constitution to oversee the activities of the president and the Cabinet.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 62}} The lower chamber is the [[Chamber of Deputies (Rwanda)|Chamber of Deputies]], which has 80 members serving five-year terms. Twenty-four of these seats are reserved for women, elected through a joint assembly of local government officials; another three seats are reserved for youth and disabled members; the remaining 53 are elected by [[universal suffrage]] under a [[proportional representation]] system.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 76}}

[[File:RwandaParliament.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chamber of Deputies of Rwanda|Chamber of Deputies building]]|alt=Photograph of the Chamber of Deputies with highway in the foreground]]

Rwanda's legal system is largely based on [[Law of Germany|German]] and [[Law of Belgium|Belgian]] [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems and [[customary law]].{{sfn|CIA (I)}} The judiciary is independent of the executive branch,{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 140}} although the president and the Senate are involved in the appointment of Supreme Court judges.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 148}} Human Rights Watch has praised the Rwandan government for progress made in the delivery of justice including the abolition of the death penalty,{{sfn|Human Rights Watch|Wells|2008|loc=I. Summary}} but also alleges interference in the judicial system by members of the government, such as the politically motivated appointment of judges, misuse of prosecutorial power, and pressure on judges to make particular decisions.{{sfn|Human Rights Watch|Wells|2008|loc=VIII. Independence of the Judiciary}} The constitution provides for two types of courts: ordinary and specialised.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 143}} Ordinary courts are the [[Supreme Court of Rwanda|Supreme Court]], the [[High Court of Rwanda|High Court]], and regional courts, while specialised courts are military courts{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 143}} and a system of commercial courts created in 2011 to expedite commercial litigations.{{sfn|Kamere|2011}} Between 2004 and 2012, a system of [[Gacaca court|''Gacaca'' courts]] was in operation.{{sfn|BBC News (VIII)|2015}} {{lang|rw|Gacaca}}, a Rwandan traditional court operated by villages and communities, was revived to expedite the trials of genocide suspects.{{sfn|Walker|March 2004}} The court succeeded in clearing the backlog of genocide cases, but was criticised by human rights groups as not meeting legal fair standard.{{sfn|BBC News (IX)|2012}}

Rwanda has low corruption levels relative to most other African countries; in 2014, [[Transparency International]] ranked Rwanda as the fifth-cleanest out of 47 countries in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and 55th-cleanest out of 175 in the world.{{sfn|Transparency International|2014}}{{sfn|Agutamba|2014}} The constitution provides for an [[ombudsman]], whose duties include prevention and fighting of corruption.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 182}}{{sfn|Office of the Ombudsman}} Public officials (including the president) are required by the constitution to declare their wealth to the ombudsman and to the public; those who do not comply are suspended from office.{{sfn|Asiimwe|2011}} Despite this, Human Rights Watch notes extensive political repression throughout the country, including illegal and arbitrary detention, threats or other forms of intimidation, disappearances, politically motivated trials, and the massacre of peacefully protesting civilians.<ref name=Roth>{{cite book |last1=Roth |first1=Kenneth |title=Rwanda Events of 2019 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/rwanda |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=10 December 2019 |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414062456/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/rwanda |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rwanda is a member of the [[United Nations]],{{sfn|United Nations (I)}} [[African Union]], [[La Francophonie|Francophonie]],{{sfn|Francophonie}} [[East African Community]],{{sfn|Grainger|2007}} and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].{{sfn|Fletcher|2009}} For many years during the Habyarimana regime, the country maintained close ties with France, as well as Belgium, the former colonial power.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=89}} Under the RPF government, however, Rwanda has sought closer ties with neighbouring countries in the East African Community and with the English-speaking world. Diplomatic relations with France were suspended in 2006 following the indictment of Rwandan officials by a French judge,{{sfn|Porter|2008}} and despite their restoration in 2010, {{As of|2015|lc=y}} relations between the countries remain strained.{{sfn|Xinhua News Agency|2015}} Relations with the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] were tense following Rwanda's involvement in the [[First Congo War|First]] and [[Second Congo War]]s;{{sfn|BBC News (V)|2010}} the Congolese army alleged Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda blamed the Congolese government for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in [[North Kivu|North]] and [[South Kivu]] provinces.{{sfn|USA Today|2008}}{{sfn|Al Jazeera|2007}} In 2010, the United Nations released a report accusing the Rwandan army of committing wide scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo during the [[First Congo War|First]] and [[Second Congo War]]s, charges denied by the Rwandan government.{{sfn|McGreal|2010}} Relations soured further in 2012, as Kinshasa accused Rwanda of supporting the [[M23 rebellion (2012–2013)|M23 rebellion]], an insurgency in the eastern Congo.{{sfn|BBC News (X)|2012}} In 2015 peace has been restored and relations were improving,{{sfn|Agence Africaine de Presse|2015}} but by January 2025 renewed Rwandan support for the M23 rebellion caused DR Congo to sever diplomatic relations in the wake of the [[2025 Goma offensive]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 January 2025 |title=The Democratic Republic of the Congo cut off diplomatic ties with Rwanda on Sunday as the rebel group M23, believed to be backed by Kigali, closed in on the eastern city of Goma. |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20250126-dr-congo-severs-ties-with-rwanda-as-m23-rebel-group-closes-in-on-goma |access-date=29 January 2025 |work=[[France24]]}}</ref>

Rwanda's relationship with [[Uganda]] was also tense for much of the 2000s following a 1999 clash between the two countries' armies as they backed opposing rebel groups in the Second Congo War,{{sfn|Heuler|2011}} but improved significantly in the early 2010s.{{sfn|BBC News (VI)|2011}}{{sfn|Maboja|2015}} In 2019, relations between the two countries deteriorated, with Rwanda closing its borders with Uganda.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-08/why-a-closed-border-has-uganda-rwanda-at-loggerheads-quicktake |title=Why a Closed Border Has Uganda, Rwanda at Loggerheads |first=David |last=Malingha |publisher=Bloomberg |date=8 March 2019 |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420234647/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-08/why-a-closed-border-has-uganda-rwanda-at-loggerheads-quicktake |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-21/uganda-rwanda-hold-talks-on-security-concerns-reopening-border |title=Uganda, Rwanda Hold Talks On Security Concerns, Reopening Border |first1=Saul |last1=Butera |first2=Fred |last2=Ojambo |publisher=Bloomberg |date=21 February 2020 |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306072656/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-21/uganda-rwanda-hold-talks-on-security-concerns-reopening-border |url-status=live}}</ref>