Editing Roger II of Sicily (section)

===Rise to power in southern Italy===
When William II of Apulia died childless in July 1127, Roger claimed all [[Hauteville family]] possessions in the peninsula as well as the overlordship of the [[Principality of Capua]], which had been nominally given to Apulia almost thirty years earlier. However, the union of Sicily and Apulia was resisted by [[Pope Honorius II]] and by the subjects of the duchy itself.

====Royal investiture====
[[File:Weltliche Schatzkammer Wienc.jpg|thumb|right|Royal mantle of Roger II, bearing an inscription in Arabic with the [[Hijra year|Hijrah]] date of 528 (1133–34).<br> [[Imperial Treasury, Vienna]], in the [[Hofburg|Hofburg Palace]].]]

The popes had long been suspicious of the growth of Norman power in southern Italy, and at Capua in December, the pope preached a [[crusade]] against Roger, setting [[Robert II of Capua]] and [[Ranulf II of Alife]] (his own brother-in-law) against him. After this coalition failed, in August 1128 Honorius invested Roger at [[Benevento]] as Duke of Apulia.{{sfn|Britt|2007|p=25}} The baronial resistance, backed by [[Naples]], [[Bari]], [[Salerno]], and other cities whose aim was civic freedom, gave way. In September 1129 Roger was generally recognized as duke of Apulia by [[Sergius VII of Naples]], Robert of Capua, and the rest. He began at once to enforce order in the duchy, where ducal power had long been fading.

On the death of Pope Honorius in February 1130 there were two claimants to the papal throne.  Roger supported [[Antipope Anacletus II]] against [[Pope Innocent II|Innocent II]].{{sfn|Britt|2007|p=25}} The reward was a crown,{{sfn|Britt|2007|p=25}} and, on 27 September 1130, Anacletus' [[papal bull]] made Roger king of Sicily.{{sfn|Chibnall|2006|p=86}} He was crowned in [[Palermo]] on [[Christmas]] Day 1130.

==== The Royal Mantle of Roger II ====
Roger II's elaborate royal [[Mantle (royal garment)|mantle]] bears the year 528 of the [[Islamic calendar]] (1133–34); therefore it could not have been used for his coronation.{{sfn|Bauer|2004|pp=115–123}}{{sfn|Bauer|2004|pp=85–95}} This lavish item, made for special events to show power and regality, was most likely worn as a symbol of the Norman's victory and new dynasty in Sicily.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Mantle of Roger II of Sicily|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=1159&lang=en#_ftn3|access-date=2021-04-18|website=Quantara: Mediterranean Heritage}}</ref> It was later used as a coronation cloak by the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s and is now in the [[Imperial Treasury, Vienna|Imperial Treasury]] (Schatzkammer) in [[Vienna]].

The mantle is an example of the Normans' multicultural court and a mark of trade in Palermo. It is a luxury object made from red silk imported from the Byzantine Empire, its outer panels embellished with gold embroidery, pearls, enamel and jewels.<ref>{{Citation|last=Kapitaikin|first=Lev A.|title=Sicily and the Staging of Multiculturalism|date=2017-06-20|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781119069218.ch15|work=A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture|pages=384|editor-last=Flood|editor-first=Finbarr Barry|place=Hoboken, NJ|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781119069218.ch15|isbn=978-1-119-06921-8|access-date=2020-11-07|editor2-last=Necipoğlu|editor2-first=Gülru}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The lining panels are separated into five sections made from three separate silks, each woven with gold.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dolezalek|first=Isabelle|date=30 May 2013|title=Textile Connections? Two Ifrīqiyan Church Treasuries in Norman Sicily and the Problem of Continuity across Political Change|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09503110.2013.767009|journal=Al-Masāq|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=109|doi=10.1080/09503110.2013.767009|s2cid=153723275|issn=0950-3110}}</ref> The pearls are from the [[Persian Gulf]], with thousands outlining each section of the embroidery. Pearls were a common decoration on pan-Mediterranean textiles, but were also used and admired on clothing of the Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dolezalek|first=Isabelle|date=30 May 2013|title=Textile Connections? Two Ifrīqiyan Church Treasuries in Norman Sicily and the Problem of Continuity across Political Change|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09503110.2013.767009|journal=Al-Masāq|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1080/09503110.2013.767009|s2cid=153723275|issn=0950-3110}}</ref> The enameled surfaces are also attributed to the Byzantine Empire, as they had many craftsmen specializing in this type of work. The gold embroidery was most likely created by Muslim craftsmen, given the [[tiraz]] bands, the Arabic text in calligraphy, and [[Kufic]] script.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Sokoly|2017|pp=275–299}} The piece was made in a private royal workshop, dedicated to creating tiraz fabric and other royal garments.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tiraz: Inscribed Textiles from the Early Islamic Period|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tira/hd_tira.htm|access-date=2020-11-07|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> It is one of few surviving mementos of [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]]-style royal garb preserved in its entirety.{{sfn|Sokoly|2017|pp=291–292}}

The inscription written in the tiraz band along the bottom of the piece states, "Here is what was created in the princely treasury, filled with luck, eminence, majesty, perfection, long-suffering, superiority, welcome, prosperity, liberality, brilliance, pride, beauty, the fulfillment of desires and hopes, the pleasure of days and nights, without cease or change, of glory, devotion, preservation of protection, luck, salvation, victory and capability, in the capital of Sicily, in the year 528 H. [1133–1134]"<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=1159&lang=es |title=Manto de Roger II de Sicilia |website=Qantara |accessdate=2021-04-18 |language=es }}</ref> This mantle was made to promote status, bring the wearer good fortune, and to emphasize Roger II's regal power.

In addition to its lavish decoration and color, the mantle uses striking imagery to convey Roger II's power and victory over the previous dynasty. In a scene evoking domination through primal violence, two lions, a [[Heraldry|heraldic]] symbol of a powerful, male ruler, each attack a camel, [[addorsed]] on either side of a central palm tree.<ref name=":0" /> The lions are stylized rather than realistically portrayed. There are also evocations of the cosmos and constellations in the star shapes on the lions' heads. The mantle's pan-Mediterranean influence is brought out in the materials used to create it, the way it was made, and its design.

====Peninsular rebellions====
Roger's backing of Anacletus plunged him into a ten-year war. [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], Innocent's champion, organized a coalition against Anacletus and his "half-heathen king".  He was joined by [[Louis VI of France]], [[Henry I of England]], and [[Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Meanwhile, southern Italy revolted.

In 1130, the [[Duchy of Amalfi]] revolted and in 1131, Roger sent [[John (Sicilian admiral)|John of Palermo]] across the [[Strait of Messina]] to join up with a royal troop from Apulia and Calabria and march on Amalfi by land while [[George of Antioch]] blockaded the town by sea and set up a base on [[Capri]].{{sfn|Houben|2002|p=60}} Amalfi soon capitulated.

In 1132, Roger sent [[Robert II of Capua]] and [[Ranulf II of Alife]] to [[Rome]] in a show of force in support of Anacletus. While they were away, Roger's half-sister Matilda, Ranulf's wife, fled to Roger claiming abuse. Simultaneously, Roger annexed Ranulf's brother's County of [[Avellino]]. Ranulf demanded the restitution of both wife and countship. Both were denied, and Ranulf left Rome against orders, with Robert following.

[[File:Roger II Sicily.jpg|thumb|left|[[Roger II]] riding to war, from the ''[[Liber ad honorem Augusti]]'' of [[Peter of Eboli|Petrus de Ebulo]], 1196.]]
First Roger dealt with a rebellion in Apulia, where he defeated and deposed [[Grimoald, Prince of Bari]], replacing him with his second son [[Tancred, Prince of Bari|Tancred]].  Meanwhile, Robert and Ranulf took papal [[Benevento]]. Roger went to meet them but was defeated at the [[Battle of Nocera]] on 25 July 1132. He retreated to Salerno.

The next year, Lothair III came down to Rome for his imperial coronation. The rebel leaders met him there, but they were refused help because Lothair's force was too small.{{sfn|Houben|2002|p=63}} With the emperor's departure, divisions in his opponents' ranks allowed Roger to reverse his fortunes. By July 1134, his troops had forced Ranulf, Sergius, and the other ringleaders to submit. Robert was expelled from Capua and Roger installed his third son, [[Alfonso of Hauteville]], as Prince of Capua. Roger II's eldest son [[Roger III, Duke of Apulia|Roger]] was given the title of Duke of Apulia.

Meanwhile, Lothair's contemplated attack upon Roger had gained the backing of the [[Republic of Pisa]], the [[Republic of Genoa]], and the [[Byzantine emperor]] [[John II Komnenos|John II]], each of whom feared the growth of a powerful Norman kingdom. A Pisan fleet led by the exiled prince of Capua dropped anchor off Naples in 1135. Ranulf joined Robert and Sergius there, encouraged by news coming from Sicily that Roger was fatally ill or even already dead. The important fortress of [[Aversa]], among others, passed to the rebels and only Capua resisted, under the royal chancellor, [[Guarin]]. On 5 June, however, Roger disembarked in Salerno, much to the surprise of all the mainland provinces. The royal army, split into several forces, easily conquered Aversa and even Alife, the base of the natural rebel leader, Ranulf. Most of the rebels took refuge in [[Naples]], which was besieged in July, but despite poor health conditions within the city, Roger was unable to take it, and returned to [[Messina]] late in the year.

====Imperial invasion====
[[File:TabulaRogeriana.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]'', an [[Early world maps|ancient world map]] drawn by [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] for Roger II of Sicily in 1154. North is at the bottom, the reverse of modern [[cartography|cartographic]] conventions.]]
In 1136, the long-awaited imperial army, led by Lothair and the [[Duke of Bavaria]], [[Henry the Proud]], descended the peninsula to support the three rebels. Henry, Robert, and Ranulf took a large contingent of troops to besiege the peninsular capital of the kingdom, [[Salerno]]. Roger remained in Sicily, leaving its mainland garrisons helpless under the chancellor [[Robert of Selby]], while even the Byzantine emperor [[John II Comnenus]] sent subsidies to Lothair. Salerno surrendered, and the large army of Germans and Normans marched to the very south of Apulia. There, in June 1137, Lothair besieged and took [[Bari]]. At [[Mercato San Severino|San Severino]], after the victorious campaign, he and the pope jointly invested Ranulf as Duke of Apulia in August 1137, and the emperor then retired to Germany. Roger, freed from the utmost danger, immediately disembarked in Calabria, at [[Tropea]], with 400 knights and other troops, probably mostly [[Muslims]]. After having been welcomed by the Salernitans, he recovered ground in [[Campania]], sacking [[Pozzuoli]], Alife, Capua, and Avellino. Sergius was forced to acknowledge him as overlord of Naples and switch his allegiance to Anacletus. This moment marked the fall of an independent Neapolitan duchy, and thereafter the ancient city was fully integrated into the Norman realm.

From there Roger moved to Benevento and northern Apulia, where Duke Ranulf, although steadily losing his bases of power, had some German troops plus some 1,500 knights from the cities of [[Melfi]], [[Trani, Apulia|Trani]], [[Troia (Italy)|Troia]], and Bari, who were "ready to die rather than lead a miserable life". On 30 October 1137, at the [[Battle of Rignano]] (next to [[Gargano|Monte Gargano]]), the younger Roger and his father, with Sergius of Naples, met the defensive army of Duke Ranulf. It was the greatest defeat of Roger II's career. Sergius died and Roger fled to Salerno. It capped Ranulf's meteoric career: twice victor over Roger. Anacletus II died in January 1138, but Innocent II refused to reconcile with the king.

In spring 1138, the royal army invaded the [[Principality of Capua]], with the precise intent of avoiding a pitched battle and of dispersing Ranulf's army with a series of marches through difficult terrain. While the Count of Alife hesitated, Roger, now supported by Benevento, destroyed all the rebels' castles in the region, capturing an immense booty. In April 1139, at the Second Council of the Lateran, Innocent II declared Roger excommunicated.{{sfn|Houben|2002|p=70}} Ranulf himself, who had taken refuge in his capital Troia, died of malarial fever on 30 April 1139. Roger exhumed his body from his grave in Troia cathedral and threw it in a ditch, only to repent subsequently and rebury him decently.

At this time, with Sergius dead, Alfonso was elected to replace him and together with his brother Roger went off to conquer the [[Abruzzi]].

====Consolidation of kingship====
[[File:Scifato ducale.jpg|left|thumb|250px|AR [[Scyphate]] Ducalis, dated year 10 (1140), after the king's victory on 25 July. Obverse: Christ. Reverse: King Roger and Duke Roger.]]

After the death of Anacletus in January 1138, Roger had sought the confirmation of his title from Innocent. However, the pope wanted an independent Principality of Capua as a buffer state between the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] and the [[Papal States]], something Roger would not accept.{{sfn|Houben|2002|p=71}} In the summer of 1139, Innocent II invaded the kingdom with a large army, but was ambushed on 22 July 1139 at [[Galluccio]],{{sfn|Robinson|1990|p=386}} southeast of present-day [[Cassino, Italy|Cassino]], by Roger's son and was captured. Three days later, by the [[Treaty of Mignano]], the pope proclaimed Roger II ''rex Siciliae ducatus Apuliae et principatus Capuae'' (King of Sicily, Duke of Apulia and commander of Capua). The boundaries of his ''regno'' were only later fixed by a truce with the pope in October 1144. These lands were for the next seven centuries to constitute the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily.

In 1139, Bari, the 50,000 inhabitants of which had remained unscathed behind its massive walls during the wars of the past year, decided to surrender. The ''excellentissimus princeps'' [[Jaquintus, Prince of Bari|Jaquintus]], who had led the rebellion of the city, was hanged, along with many of his followers, but the city avoided being sacked. Roger's execution of the prince and his counsellors was perhaps the most violent act of his life.

While his sons overcame pockets of resistance on the mainland, on 5 November 1139 Roger returned to Palermo to plan a great act of legislation: the [[Assizes of Ariano]], an attempt to establish his dominions in southern Italy as a coherent state. He returned to check on his sons' progress in 1140 and then went to [[Ariano Irpino|Ariano]], a town central to the peninsular possessions (and a center of rebellion under his predecessors). There he promulgated the great law regulating all [[Sicilians|Sicilian]] affairs. It invested the king and his bureaucracy with absolute powers and reduced the authority of the often rebellious vassals. While there, centralising his kingdom, Roger declared a new standard coinage, named after the duchy of Apulia: the ''[[ducat]].''