Editing Robert Ballard (section)

==Marine archaeology==
While Ballard had been interested in the sea since an early age, his work at [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute|Woods Hole]] and his [[scuba diving]] experiences off [[Massachusetts]] spurred his interest in shipwrecks and their exploration. His work in the Navy involved developing small, unmanned submersibles that could be tethered to and controlled from a surface ship and were outfitted with lighting, cameras, and manipulator arms. As early as 1973, he saw this as a way of searching for the wreck of the ''Titanic''. In 1977, he led his first expedition, which was unsuccessful.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}

===RMS ''Titanic''===
[[File:Robert_Ballard_1999.jpg|thumb|Ballard in 1999 with a VHS copy of the film ''[[Titanic (1997)|Titanic]]'']]
In the summer of 1985, Ballard was aboard the French research ship ''[[RV Le Suroît|Le Suroît]]'', which was using the [[side scan sonar]] ''SAR'' to search for the ''Titanic''{{'s}} wreck. When the French ship was recalled, he transferred onto a ship from [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute|Woods Hole]], the [[RV Knorr|R/V ''Knorr'']]. Unbeknownst to some, this trip was financed by the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] for secret reconnaissance of the wreckage of two Navy [[nuclear submarine|nuclear powered]] [[attack submarine]]s, the [[USS Scorpion (SSN-589)|USS ''Scorpion'']] and the [[USS Thresher (SSN-593)|USS ''Thresher'']], which sank in the 1960s, and not for the ''Titanic''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/12/13/us/titanic-discovery-classified-nuclear-sub/index.html|title=Inside the secret US military mission that located the Titanic|last=Levenson|first=Eric|date=December 14, 2018|access-date=January 7, 2018|archive-date=December 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214063112/https://edition.cnn.com/2018/12/13/us/titanic-discovery-classified-nuclear-sub/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1982, Ballard had approached the Navy about his new deep sea underwater robot craft, the [[Argo (ROV)|''Argo'']], and his search for the ''Titanic''.<ref name="Navy">{{cite news |first=Lewis |last=Smith |title=Titanic search was cover for secret Cold War subs mission |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article3994955.ece |work=[[The Times]] |date=May 24, 2008 |access-date=May 26, 2008 |location=London |archive-date=June 4, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604054238/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article3994955.ece |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Navy, while not interested in funding Ballard's ''Titanic'' search on its own, ultimately concluded that ''Argo'' was their best chance to locate their missing submarines, and agreed to finance his expedition on the condition that he first investigated the two submarines, assessed the state of their nuclear reactors, and determined if their long submergence had cause any radioactive environmental impact.<ref name="Navy"/> He was placed on temporary active duty in the Navy, in charge of finding and investigating the wrecks, after which he would be free to use any remaining time and resources to hunt for the ''Titanic''.<ref name="Navy"/>

After their missions for the Navy, [[RV Knorr|''Knorr'']] arrived on site on August 22, 1985,<ref name="Discovery">{{cite web|url=http://www.titanic-titanic.com/discovery_of_titanic.shtml|title=Discovery Of Titanic|access-date=December 7, 2008|archive-date=May 29, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529080536/http://www.titanic-titanic.com/discovery_of_titanic.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> and deployed [[Argo (submersible)|''Argo'']]. When they searched for the two submarines, Ballard and his team discovered they had imploded from the immense pressure at depth. It littered thousands of pieces of debris all over the ocean floor. Following the large trail of debris led them directly to the remnants of both vessels and made them significantly easier to locate than if they were to search for the hulls directly. He already knew that the ''Titanic'' imploded from pressure, much like the two submarines, and concluded that it too must have left a scattered debris trail. Using that lesson, they had ''Argo'' sweep back and forth across the ocean floor looking for the ''Titanic's'' debris trail.<ref name="Discovery"/> They took shifts monitoring the video feed from ''Argo'' as it searched the ocean floor two miles below.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

In the early morning of September 1, 1985, observers noted anomalies on the smooth ocean floor. At first, it was pockmarks, like small craters from impacts. Eventually, debris was sighted as the rest of the team was awakened. Finally, a boiler was sighted, and soon after that, the hull was found.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

Ballard's team made a general search of the ''Titanic's'' exterior, noting its condition. Most significantly, they confirmed that it had split in two and that the stern was in far worse shape than the bow. They did not have much time to explore, as others were waiting to take ''Knorr'' on other scientific pursuits, but his fame was now assured. He originally planned to keep the location secret to prevent anyone from claiming prizes. He considered the site a cemetery and refused to desecrate it by removing artifacts.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

On July 12, 1986, Ballard and his team returned on board ''Atlantis II'' <ref name="Discovery"/> to make the first detailed study of the wreck. This time, he brought ''Alvin''. It was accompanied by ''Jason Junior'', a small remotely operated vehicle that could fit through small openings to see into the ship's interior. Although the first dive (taking over two hours) encountered technical problems, subsequent ones were far more successful and produced a detailed photographic record of the wreck's condition.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

In 1988, Ballard published a book, ''Discovery Of The Titanic: Exploring The Greatest Of All Lost Ships'', {{ISBN|0-446-51385-7}} and he later recounted the specifics of the expedition for ''National Geographic'' in a video.<ref>{{cite magazine|author1=Dawn McCarty |author2=Jef Feeley |author3=Chris Dixon| url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/11/titanic-nuclear-submarine-scorpion-thresher-ballard/|title=How Did the 'Unsinkable' Titanic End Up at the Bottom of the Ocean?|magazine=National Geographic|date=November 24, 2017|access-date=September 2, 2018|archive-date=January 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106102453/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/11/titanic-nuclear-submarine-scorpion-thresher-ballard/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Many of the relics retrieved by various groups, not including Ballard, from RMS ''Titanic'' were owned by [[Premier Exhibitions]] which filed for bankruptcy in 2016. In late August 2018, the groups vying for ownership of the 5,500 relics included one by museums in England and Northern Ireland with assistance from filmmaker [[James Cameron]] and some financial support from [[National Geographic]].<ref>{{cite magazine|author1=Dawn McCarty | author2=Jef Feeley | author3=Chris Dixon | title=James Cameron: Getting Titanic Artifacts to U.K. Would Be 'a Dream'|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/07/news-titanic-uk-belfast-bankruptcy-cameron/|magazine=National Geographic|date=July 24, 2018|access-date=September 2, 2018|archive-date=September 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902220610/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/07/news-titanic-uk-belfast-bankruptcy-cameron/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ballard told the news media that he favored this bid since it would ensure that the memorabilia would be permanently displayed in [[Belfast]] and in [[Greenwich]]. A decision as to the outcome was to be made by a [[United States district court]] judge.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Dawn McCarty | author2=Jef Feeley | author3=Chris Dixon|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-31/bankrupt-titanic-exhibitor-sets-biggest-sale-ever-of-ship-relics|title=Bankrupt Titanic exhibitor sets biggest sale of ship relics|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|publisher=Bloomberg|date=August 31, 2018|access-date=September 2, 2018|archive-date=September 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902220606/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-31/bankrupt-titanic-exhibitor-sets-biggest-sale-ever-of-ship-relics|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Other wrecks===
====''Bismarck''====
Ballard undertook an even more daunting task when he and his team searched off the coast of France for the German Battleship ''[[German battleship Bismarck|Bismarck]]'' in 1989, using an ocean-crawling robot. The 15,000 foot deep water in which it sank<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/11/13/science/undersea-robots-open-a-new-age-of-exploration.html |title=Undersea Robots Open a New Age of Exploration |last=Broad |first=William J |date=1990 |website=New York Times |access-date=September 2, 2018 |archive-date=September 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902220613/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/11/13/science/undersea-robots-open-a-new-age-of-exploration.html |url-status=live }}</ref> is 4,000 feet deeper than that where the ''Titanic'' sank. He attempted to determine whether it had been sunk by the British or was scuttled by its crew. Three weeks after the expedition however, personal tragedy struck him when his 21-year-old son, Todd, who had aided him in the search, was killed in a car accident.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1989/07/25/Son-of-explorer-another-man-killed-in-car-crash/3764319040352 |title=Son of explorer, another man killed in car crash |date=1989 |access-date=April 21, 2021 |archive-date=October 20, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020205300/http://www.upi.com/Archives/1989/07/25/Son-of-explorer-another-man-killed-in-car-crash/3764319040352/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Ballard later published a book about the quest, ''The Discovery of the Bismarck'' (1990)<ref>Ballard Robert D and Rick Archbold. 1990. ''The Discovery of the Bismarck.'' New York N.Y: Warner Books.''</ref> The discovery was also documented for [[National Geographic]] in a 1989 [[James Cameron]] video ''Search for the Battleship Bismarck'' which indicated that the ship had been damaged by torpedoes and shells from British ships.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alibris.com/National-Geographic-Search-for-the-Battleship-Bismarck/movie/100034563 |title=National Geographic: Search for the Battleship Bismarck (1989) |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1990 |website=Alibris |access-date=September 2, 2018 |archive-date=September 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902183903/https://www.alibris.com/National-Geographic-Search-for-the-Battleship-Bismarck/movie/100034563 |url-status=live }}</ref> The actual cause of the sinking, however, was sabotage of the underwater valves by the onboard crew, according to Ballard, who said, "we found a hull that appears whole and relatively undamaged by the descent and impact". Filmmaker Cameron, however, said that his crew's examination of the wreckage indicated that the Bismarck would have sunk eventually even if it had not been scuttled.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFQxDwAAQBAJ&q=Ballard+Bismarck+we+found+a+hull+that+appears+whole+and+relatively+undamaged+by+the+descent+and+impact&pg=PT16 |title=World War 2 In Review No. 9: Warships |date=August 1, 2017 |publisher=Merriam Press |isbn=978-1-387-10543-4 |access-date=October 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206135216/https://books.google.com/books?id=HFQxDwAAQBAJ&q=Ballard+Bismarck+we+found+a+hull+that+appears+whole+and+relatively+undamaged+by+the+descent+and+impact&pg=PT16 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====''Lusitania''====
In 1993, Ballard investigated the wreck of [[RMS Lusitania|RMS ''Lusitania'']] off the Irish coast. It had been struck by a torpedo, whose explosion was followed by a second, much larger one. The wreck had been [[depth charge]]d by the [[Royal Navy]] several years after the sinking and had also been damaged by other explorers, making a forensic analysis difficult. He found no evidence of boiler explosion and he speculated the ignition of coal dust inside the ship caused a "massive, uncontrollable [second] explosion".<ref name="pbs_lusitania">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/lostliners/lusitania.html |title=Text excerpted from Lost Liners, courtesy of Madison Press Books |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=PBS |access-date=September 2, 2018 |quote=previous visitors had already tampered with the evidence...we found nothing to suggest the ship was sabotaged. |archive-date=August 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830023648/http://www.pbs.org/lostliners/lusitania.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Others have questioned this hypothesis, some suggesting that the ship had been sabotaged by the British. Ballard found no evidence to support this claim.<ref name="pbs_lusitania"/> Some experts have indicated that it was, in fact, boiler explosions that caused the ship to sink so quickly, in a mere 18 minutes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schmidt |first=Donald E |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXbQoSUOP4AC&q=Lusitania+cause+of+sinking+ballard&pg=PA73 |title=The Folly of War: American Foreign Policy, 1898-2005 |date=May 31, 2005 |publisher=Algora |isbn=978-0-87586-382-5 |page=74 |access-date=October 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206135152/https://books.google.com/books?id=EXbQoSUOP4AC&q=Lusitania+cause+of+sinking+ballard&pg=PA73 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Ballard published a book about the discovery, ''Exploring the Lusitania: Probing the Mysteries of the Sinking that Changed History'', also titled ''Robert Ballard's Lusitania'' in some markets, with co-author Spencer Dunmore.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ballard |first=Robert D. |date=1995 |title=Exploring the Lusitania: probing the mysteries of the sinking that changed history |url=https://archive.org/details/exploringlusitan0000ball |url-access=registration |publication-place=New York |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51851-4 |lccn=95002771}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ballard |first=Robert D. |date=2007 |title=Robert Ballard's Lusitania: probing the mysteries of the sinking that changed history |url=https://archive.org/details/robertballardslu0000ball |url-access=registration |publication-place=Edison, N.J. |publisher=Chartwell Books |isbn=978-0-7858-2207-3}}</ref>

====Battle of Guadalcanal====
In 1992, Ballard and his team visited the sites of many wrecks of [[World War II]] in the [[Pacific War|Pacific]]. Doing so, he discovered the wreck of the [[Japanese battleship Kirishima|IJN ''Kirishima'']].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.navweaps.com/index_lundgren/Kirishima_Damage_Analysis.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105140615/http://www.navweaps.com/index_lundgren/Kirishima_Damage_Analysis.pdf |archive-date=2015-11-05 | title=Kirishima Damage Analysis}}</ref> His book ''Lost Ships of [[Guadalcanal campaign|Guadalcanal]]'' locates and photographs many of the vessels sunk at [[Ironbottom Sound]], the strait between [[Guadalcanal Island]] and the [[Florida Islands|Floridas]] in the [[Solomon Islands]].{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

====USS ''Yorktown''====
On May 19, 1998, Ballard found the wreck of ''[[USS Yorktown (CV-5)|Yorktown]]'', sunk at the [[Battle of Midway]]. Found three miles (5&nbsp;km) beneath the surface, it was photographed.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

====''PT-109''====
In 2002, the [[National Geographic Society]] and Ballard fielded a ship with remote vehicles to the [[Solomon Islands]]. They succeeded in finding a torpedo tube and the forward section from the shipwreck of [[John F. Kennedy]]'s ''[[Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109|PT-109]]'' which was rammed in 1943 by the Japanese destroyer ''Amagiri'' off [[Ghizo Island]].<ref name="National Geographic">[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/07/0709_020710_kennedyPT109.html "JFK's PT-109 Found, U.S. Navy Confirms"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819023530/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/07/0709_020710_kennedyPT109.html |date=August 19, 2012 }}.</ref> The visit also brought to light the identity of islanders [[Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana]] who had received little recognition for finding the shipwrecked crew after searching for days in their [[dugout canoe]]. A TV special and a book were produced, and Ballard spoke at the [[John F. Kennedy Library]] in 2005.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

===Institute for Exploration===
In the 1990s Ballard founded the [[Mystic Aquarium & Institute for Exploration|Institute for Exploration]], which specializes in deep-sea archaeology and geology. It joined forces in 1999 with the Mystic Aquarium in [[Mystic, Connecticut]]. They are a part of the non-profit Sea Research Foundation, Inc.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

===Center for Ocean Exploration and Archaeological Oceanography===
In 2003, Ballard started the [[Center for Ocean Exploration and Archaeological Oceanography]], a research program at the University of Rhode Island's Graduate School of Oceanography.<ref name="URIInstitute">{{cite web|url=http://www.uri.edu/news/ballard/institute.htm|title=Institute for Archaeological Oceanography|date=June 1, 2004|publisher=University of Rhode Island|access-date=March 17, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626135358/http://www.uri.edu/news/ballard/institute.htm|archive-date=June 26, 2012}}</ref>

===Black Sea===
In 1976, [[Willard Bascom]] suggested that the deep, [[anoxic waters]] of the [[Black Sea]] might have preserved ships from antiquity because typical wood-devouring organisms could not survive there. At a depth of 150 m, it contains insufficient oxygen to support most familiar biological life forms.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

Originally a land-locked freshwater lake, the Black Sea was flooded with salt water from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] during the [[Holocene]]. The influx of salt water essentially smothered the freshwater below it because a lack of internal motion and mixing meant that no fresh oxygen reached the deep waters,<ref>Oğuz, T., Latun, V.S., Latif, M.A., Vladimirov, V. L., Sur, H. I., Markov, A. A., Ozsoy, E. Kotovschichkov, B. B., Eremeev, V.N., and Unluata, U., 1993, Circulation in the surface and intermediate layers, ''Deep-Sea Research'' 1.40: 1597&ndash;612.</ref> creating a [[meromictic]] body of water. The anoxic environment, which is hostile to many biological organisms that destroy wood in the oxygenated waters, provides an excellent testing site for deep-water archaeological surveys.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

In a series of expeditions, a team of marine archaeologists led by Ballard identified what appeared to be ancient shorelines, freshwater snail shells, and drowned river valleys in roughly 300 feet (100 m) of water off the Black Sea coast of modern [[Turkey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2000/sep/14/internationalnews.archaeology|title=Evidence found of Noah's ark flood victims|last=Radford|first=Tim|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=September 14, 2000|access-date=August 21, 2022|archive-date=August 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821134355/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2000/sep/14/internationalnews.archaeology|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngnews/blacksea.html|title=Evidence of Human Habitation in the Black Sea @ nationalgeographic.com|publisher=[[National Geographic]]|access-date=August 21, 2022|archive-date=July 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210706010122/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngnews/blacksea.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Radiocarbon]] dating of freshwater mollusk remains indicated an age of about 7,000 years.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

The team discovered three ancient wrecks west of the town of [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]] at depths of 100 m. Wreck A and Wreck C probably date to the late Roman period (2nd–4th century A.D.), while Wreck B probably dates to the Byzantine period (5th to 7th century A.D.).{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

To the east of Sinop, the team discovered a remarkably well-preserved wreck at a 320 m depth, in the Black Sea's deep anoxic waters. The vessel's entire hull and cargo are intact, buried in sediments. Its deck structures are also intact, including a mast rising 11 m into the water column. Radiocarbon dating of wood from the wreck provides a date of 410–520 A.D. It has been named "Sinop D" by the Ballard team.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

In 2000, the team conducted an expedition that focused on exploration of the seabed about 15–30&nbsp;km west of Sinop, and an additional deep-water survey east and north of the peninsula. Their project had several goals. They sought to discover whether human habitation sites could be identified on the ancient submerged landscape, they examined the sea-bed for shipwrecks (where they found Sinop A-D), to test the hypothesis that the anoxic waters below 200 m would protect shipwrecks from the expected biological attacks on organic components, and to seek data about an ancient trade route between Sinop and the [[Crimea]] indicated by terrestrial archaeological remains.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

Although Sinop served as a primary trade center in the Black Sea, the wrecks were located west of the trade route predicted by the prevalence of Sinopian ceramics on the Crimean peninsula. On wrecks A-C, mounds of distinctive carrot-shaped shipping jars, called [[amphorae]], were found. They were of a style associated with Sinop and retained much of their original stacking pattern on the sea floor. The jars may have carried a variety of archetypal Black Sea products such as olive oil, honey, wine, or fish sauce. The contents are unknown because no artifacts were recovered from these wreck sites in 2000.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

The wreck provided the team with vast information about the technological changes and trade in the Black Sea during political, social, and economic transition through their study of the ship's construction techniques. Studies show that in Sinop during the Byzantine era, they had developed long-distance trading as early as 4500 BC. Sea-trading on the Black Sea was most intense during the period of late antiquity, between the 2nd and 7th centuries AD.<ref>Hiebert, F., 2001, Black Sea coastal cultures: trade and interaction, ''Expedition'' 43: 11–20</ref> The examination of the four shipwrecks found by Ballard and his team provide the direct evidence for Black Sea maritime trade so well attested by the distribution of ceramics on land.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

The video images of Shipwreck A show a wall of shipping jars standing about 2 m above the seabed. The amphorae highest on the mound had fallen over without displacing those still standing in the rows beneath them, and, likely, the ship settled upright on the seabed gradually being both buried in and filled with sediment as exposed wood was devoured by the larva or the [[shipworm]].{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

Shipwreck B also consisted of a large pile of amphorae but several types are visible, as are multiple timbers protruding from within the mound and on it. In addition to the Sinop-style jars, several amphorae similar to examples excavated on the [[Yassiada]] Byzantine shipwreck and dating from the 5th to late 6th century AD are present.<ref>van Doorninck, F. H. Jr., 2002, Byzantine shipwrecks, in A. Laiou (ed.), ''The Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century'' I, 899–905. Dumbarton Oaks Studies 30, Washington, DC.</ref>

Two discrete and mostly buried piles of carrot-shaped shipping jars comprise shipwreck C. The team's visit to the site was short and was intended primarily to test survey methodology for deep-water procedures.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

Shipwreck D provided the team with an unprecedented opportunity to document hull construction during a time of transition. When observing the sonar signature of Shipwreck D, a long, slender upright feature on the seabed, transformed itself into a wooden mast. Elements rarely present on shallower shipwreck sites are beautifully preserved 200 m below the surface. Disappointingly for ship scholars and historians of technology, there are few indications of how the planks of Sinop D are held together. There are no [[mortise and tenon]] fastenings and no sewing. Shipwreck D may be one of the earliest [[lateen]]-rigged ships to be studied by archaeologists. The angle of the mast and the lack of fittings on it suggest that a lateen sail is the most likely configuration for such a small vessel.{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}

The Institute for Exploration Black Sea expeditions relied on remote sensing with side-scan sonar in shallow and deep water to identify potential archaeological sites examined by [[Remotely operated underwater vehicle|ROV]]s. The hypothesis that the anoxic waters of the Black Sea would allow extraordinary organic preservation is borne out by the discovery of Sinop D, the 1,500-year-old shipwreck with excellent preservation of features above the sediment layer.<ref>Ballard, Robert D., and Ward, Cheryl, 2004, Deep-water Archaeological Survey in the Black Sea; 2000 Season, ''The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology'', 33.1: 2–13, ([http://www.coastal.edu/archaeology/cward/Ward%20publication%20files/Ward%20and%20Ballard%202004%20IJNA.pdf online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522033235/http://www.coastal.edu/archaeology/cward/Ward%20publication%20files/Ward%20and%20Ballard%202004%20IJNA.pdf |date=May 22, 2013 }}).</ref>

According to a report in ''[[New Scientist]]'' magazine (May 4, 2002, p.&nbsp;13), the researchers found an underwater delta south of the [[Bosporus]]. There was evidence of a strong flow of fresh water out of the Black Sea in the [[8th millennium BC]]. Ballard's research has contributed to the debate over the [[Black Sea deluge theory]].{{citation_needed|date=August 2019}}