Editing Quercus rubra (section)

==Ecology==
[[File:Jakey Hollow Natural Area (Revisit) (27) (17008356190).jpg|thumb|upright|Mossy trunk of a large, old-growth individual surrounded by hemlocks within the [[Jakey Hollow Natural Area]] of [[Weiser State Forest]] in Columbia County, Pennsylvania]]
Over the last few decades, the northern red oak has dealt with several environmental factors, mainly disease, predation by insects, and limited opportunities for dispersal. These stresses have impacted the species' ability to proliferate in both the Northeast and Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLciOJaG0C4C|title=Mycorrhizal Symbiosis|last1=Smith|first1=Sally E.|last2=Read|first2=David J.|date=2010-07-26|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=9780080559346|language=en}}</ref> The various environmental responses observed in ''Quercus rubra'' across several temperate environmental conditions have allowed for it to serve as a model organism for studying symbiotic relationships, dispersal, and habituation between tree species.

===Pests and diseases===
Canker pathogen, ''[[Diplodia corticola]],'' has become a major pathogen to the species over the last decade, causing leaf browning, bark cracking and bleeding, and high rates of tree mortality across the northeastern United States.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Top|first1=Sara M.|last2=Preston|first2=Caroline M.|last3=Dukes|first3=Jeffrey S.|last4=Tharayil|first4=Nishanth|date=2017|title=Climate Influences the Content and Chemical Composition of Foliar Tannins in Green and Senesced Tissues of Quercus rubra|journal=Frontiers in Plant Science|language=en|volume=8|pages=423|doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.00423|pmid=28559896|pmc=5432568|issn=1664-462X|doi-access=free}}</ref> The northern red oak is also characterized as one of the most susceptible species to plant fungi ''[[Phytophthora cinnamomi]]'' and ''[[Phytophthora ramorum]],'' which have caused severe, red-black cankers in the trunk region of the species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marĉais|first1=B.|last2=Dupuis|first2=F.|last3=Desprez-Loustau|first3=M. L.|date=1996-06-01|title=Susceptibility of the Quercus rubra root system to Phytophthora cinnamomi; comparison with chestnut and other oak species|journal=European Journal of Forest Pathology|language=en|volume=26|issue=3|pages=133–143|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0329.1996.tb00718.x|s2cid=83704321 |issn=1439-0329|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02080860/file/1996-Etiorac_Pcin-ForPath.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bergot|first=Magali|date=2004|title=Simulation of potential range expansion of oak disease caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi under climate change|journal=Global Change Biology|volume=10|issue=9|pages=1539–1552|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2004.00824.x|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02080793/file/2004-GCB-Bergot%26al.pdf|bibcode=2004GCBio..10.1539B|s2cid=85844009}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Davidson|first1=J. M.|last2=Werres|first2=S.|last3=Garbelotto|first3=M.|last4=Hansen|first4=E. M.|last5=Rizzo|first5=D. M.|title=Sudden Oak Death and Associated Diseases Caused by Phytophthora ramorum|url=http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/php/elements/sum.aspx?id=2808&photo=1618|journal=Plant Health Progress|volume=4|pages=12|doi=10.1094/php-2003-0707-01-dg|year=2003|issue=1 |bibcode=2003PlaHP...4...12D |archive-date=2020-01-11|access-date=2018-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111095033/http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/php/elements/sum.aspx?id=2808&photo=1618|url-status=dead}}</ref> Both ''P. cinnamomi'' and ''P. ramorum'' grow under warmer temperature conditions; as a result, northern red oak trees found in California, France, and northern Spain all have a higher incidence of fungal infection.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marcais|first=B|date=June 1995|title=Modelling the influence of winter frosts on the development of the stem canker of red oak, caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi|url=https://www.afs-journal.org/articles/forest/pdf/1996/02/AFS_0003-4312_1996_53_2-3_ART0019.pdf|journal= Annales des Sciences Forestières|volume=53|issue=2–3|pages=369–382|doi=10.1051/forest:19960219|doi-access=free}}</ref>  Oak Wilt caused by the fungus [[Oak wilt|''Bretziella fagacearum'']] is a major pathogen found in eastern North America that can kill trees quickly.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sudden Oak Death|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38ZWkUOqnrYC&pg=PP2|year=2002|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, State and Private Forestry, Northeastern Area|pages=2–}}</ref>

There has been a recent northern red oak decline in Arkansas which is “unique in that it is associated with increases in red oak borer” (Enaphalodes rufulus) which “is native to the eastern United States and usually occurs in mixed oak forests”. “It damages the phloem, sapwood, and heartwood which means the ability for growth and repair is attacked as well as the stability of the tree”.<ref>Haavik, L. J., Stephen, F. M., Fierke, M. K., Salisbury, V. B., Leavitt, S. W., & Billings, S. A. (2008). Dendrochronological parameters of northern red oak ( Quercus rubra L. (Fagaceae)) infested with red oak borer ( Enaphalodes rufulus (Haldeman) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)). Forest Ecology and Management, 255(5), 1501–1509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.11.005</ref>

=== Abiotic stresses ===
Northern red oak seedlings have been known to have a high mortality rate in northeast regions prone to spring freeze, particularly in Massachusetts. Acorns produced by oaks in this region are typically smaller in size as an adaptation to frost produced in high latitudes; however, the resulting smaller seedlings have produced limited opportunities for animal consumption and dispersal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aizen |first=Marcelo |date=1996 |title=Effects of acorn size on seedling survival and growth in Quercus rubra following simulated sporing freeze. |url=https://77f6c0c1-a-62cb3a1a-s-sites.googlegroups.com/site/marceloaizen/pdfs_maa/Aizen%26Woodcock_1996_CJB.pdf?attachauth=ANoY7cqfdRMJaMk6Z8JY4B9VXzud_SIB1-CgA53eXP1K0MK259xswZjGDtYCkL1-CVQA6Paek4W3pqLfDIQZvxzUEB-qO5rXR1PCub8uYD7sL7yN7qaHhFPtaNE_AheTWLxssGtOJPYnwP7a4bLy0NXgMTaeAsrjyVVn99KGKjFui-Gi1yLVn8eVLyu1RWfAzoQ8uHkqsMSK_vxFht4qa32uumo904gtmc3-FKKab6Y8tFGV6ol5ySSdmL6tZyrGSVb6Y_b4Eyg2&attredirects=0 |journal=Canadian Journal of Botany |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=308–314 |doi=10.1139/b96-037 |bibcode=1996CaJB...74..308A }}{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Flooding along the continental United States has been shown to be a major issue for the northern red oak, in which decreased [[phloem]] transport and photosynthetic activity has been observed, but only after multiple days of flooding, indicating that the northern red oak has adapted moderate resistance to excess water exposure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sloan |first1=Joshua L. |last2=Islam |first2=M. Anisul |last3=Jacobs |first3=Douglass F. |date=2016-01-01 |title=Reduced translocation of current photosynthate precedes changes in gas exchange forQuercus rubraseedlings under flooding stress |journal=Tree Physiology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=54–62 |doi=10.1093/treephys/tpv122 |issn=0829-318X |pmid=26655380 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The northern red oak has also developed tolerance mechanisms for heat stress, particularly observed in deciduous forests in the Southeastern United States, where, during summer heat waves, temperatures can exceed {{cvt|40|C}}. The leaves of the northern red oak have been observed to have an acclimation to [[RuBisCO|Rubisco]] activase activity that is directly correlated to acclimations with repeated exposure to heat waves. Consistent photosynthetic activity in the red oak has also been observed in the presence of high carbon dioxide levels that often occur as a result of elevated temperatures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bauweraerts |first1=Ingvar |last2=Ameye |first2=Maarten |last3=Wertin |first3=Timothy M. |last4=McGuire |first4=Mary Anne |last5=Teskey |first5=Robert O. |last6=Steppe |first6=Kathy |date=2014-07-01 |title=Acclimation effects of heat waves and elevated [CO2] on gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence of northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) seedlings |journal=Plant Ecology |language=en |volume=215 |issue=7 |pages=733–746 |doi=10.1007/s11258-014-0352-9 |bibcode=2014PlEco.215..733B |issn=1385-0237 |s2cid=14230195}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cavender-Bares |first1=J. |author-link1=Jeannine Cavender-Bares |last2=Potts |first2=M. |last3=Zacharias |first3=E. |last4=Bazzaz |first4=F. A. |date=2000-12-01 |title=Consequences of CO2 and light interactions for leaf phenology, growth, and senescence in Quercus rubra |journal=Global Change Biology |language=en |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=877–887 |bibcode=2000GCBio...6..877C |citeseerx=10.1.1.337.1253 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2486.2000.00361.x |issn=1365-2486 |s2cid=15753586}}</ref>

===Animals===
Northern red oak kernels have highly concentrated amounts of bitter-tasting [[tannin]], a biochemical classified as a predator deterrent, which has limited appeal for consumption among animals. Despite this, the acorns are eaten by [[deer]], [[squirrels]] and [[birds]].<ref name="FNA" /> In Europe, the acorns are consumed by several moth species, particularly ''[[Cydia fagiglandana]]'' and ''[[Cydia splendana]]'', which increases their niche breadths and reduces their competition with ''[[Curculio]]'' weevils.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Myczko|first1=Łukasz|last2=Dylewski|first2=Łukasz|last3=Chrzanowski|first3=Artur|last4=Sparks|first4=Tim H.|date=2017-08-01|title=Acorns of invasive Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra) in Europe are larval hosts of moths and beetles|journal=Biological Invasions|language=en|volume=19|issue=8|pages=2419–2425|doi=10.1007/s10530-017-1452-y|bibcode=2017BiInv..19.2419M |s2cid=9609205|issn=1387-3547}}</ref> Due to this, germination rates among the northern red oak acorns have decreased significantly and resulted in less seed dispersal by animals within Poland. In addition, limited opportunities for dispersal have become costly for the northern red oak in Europe. European animals known for dispersing tendencies, such as the [[Eurasian jay|European jay]] and [[wood mouse]], have been found to be more attracted to local oak species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Merceron|first=Natalie|date=2017|title=Removal of acorns of the alien oak Quercus rubra on the ground by scatter-hoarding animals in Belgian forests.|url=https://popups.uliege.be/1780-4507/index.php?id=13613|journal=Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society, and Environment|volume=21|pages=127–130|doi=10.25518/1780-4507.13613|s2cid=90139551|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Fungi===
''Quercus rubra'' has effective [[ectomycorrhiza]]l relationships that have been correlated with increased growth rates. Northern red oak trees have been shown to increase growth in the presence of various [[ascomycete]]s that coil at the base of the oak trunk. The fungi, which eventually proliferate at the stumps of deciduous trees, have been found to be host-specific to both ''Quercus rubra'' and ''[[Quercus montana]]''<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Dickie|first1=Ian A.|last2=Koide|first2=Roger T.|last3=Steiner|first3=Kim C.|date=2002|title=Influences of Established Trees on Mycorrhizas, Nutrition, and Growth of Quercus rubra Seedlings|jstor=3100054|journal=Ecological Monographs|volume=72|issue=4|pages=505–521|doi=10.2307/3100054}}</ref> and primarily promote growth upon infection.<ref name=":7" />

===Invasiveness in Europe===
It was introduced to Europe in the 1700s and has naturalized throughout most of western and central Europe.<ref name="euforgen" />
Across western and central Europe, the northern red oak has become the fourth-most significant invasive species, colonizing several regions across [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[Northern Italy]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], [[Ukraine]], [[European Russia]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-distribution-of-Q-rubra-in-Europe-based-on-NOBANIS-data-and-additionally-on-Magni_fig1_264977503|title = Figure 1. The distribution of Q. Rubra in Europe (Based on NOBANIS data}}</ref> [[the Urals]] and [[Western Siberia]]). The northern red oak is primarily found on the edges of woodland reserves in Europe, where light availability, tannin concentration, and animal dispersal are the most necessary component for the species' longevity and survival.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Wagner|first1=Viktoria|last2=Chytrý|first2=Milan|last3=Jiménez-Alfaro|first3=Borja|last4=Pergl|first4=Jan|last5=Hennekens|first5=Stephan|last6=Biurrun|first6=Idoia|last7=Knollová|first7=Ilona|last8=Berg|first8=Christian|last9=Vassilev|first9=Kiril|date=2017-09-01|title=Alien plant invasions in European woodlands|journal=Diversity and Distributions|language=en|volume=23|issue=9|pages=969–981|doi=10.1111/ddi.12592|bibcode=2017DivDi..23..969W |issn=1472-4642|doi-access=free}}</ref> The high influx of the species in Europe is primarily based on its economic productivity as a fast-growing source of [[Lumber|timber]]; however, it has been linked to lower percentages of trace elements and minerals found in the surrounding soil and reduced [[Species richness|richness]] among native oak species such as ''[[Quercus robur]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Riepas|first=Edvardas|date=2008|title=Invasiveness and ecological effects of red oak (Quercus rubra) in Lithuanian forests.|url=https://www.balticforestry.mi.lt/bf/PDF_Articles/2008-14%5B2%5D/122_130%20Riepsas%20%26%20Straigyte.pdf|journal=Baltic Forestry|volume=14|pages=122–130|archive-date=2021-05-11|access-date=2018-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511162454/https://www.balticforestry.mi.lt/bf/PDF_Articles/2008-14%5B2%5D/122_130%20Riepsas%20%26%20Straigyte.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woziwoda|first1=Beata|last2=Kopeć|first2=Dominik|last3=Witkowski|first3=Janusz|date=2014-03-18|title=The negative impact of intentionally introduced Quercus rubra L. on a forest community|journal=Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae|language=en|volume=83|issue=1|pages=39–49|doi=10.5586/asbp.2013.035|issn=2083-9480|doi-access=free|bibcode=2014AcSBP..83...39W }}</ref>