Editing Quechuan languages (section)

==Classification==
[[File:Quechuan_distribution.svg|thumb|The four branches of Quechua: I (Central), II-A (North Peruvian), II-B (Northern), II-C (Southern)]]
There are significant differences among the varieties of Quechua spoken in the central Peruvian highlands and the peripheral varieties of Ecuador, as well as those of southern Peru and Bolivia. They can be labeled Quechua I (or Quechua B, central) and Quechua II (or Quechua A, peripheral). Within the two groups, there are few sharp boundaries, making them [[dialect continuum|dialect continua]].

However, there is a secondary division in Quechua II between the grammatically simplified northern varieties of Ecuador, Quechua II-B, known there as [[Kichwa language|Kichwa]], and the generally more conservative varieties of the southern highlands, Quechua II-C, which include the old Inca capital of [[Cusco]]. The closeness is at least in part because of the influence of [[Cusco Quechua]] on the Ecuadorean varieties in the Inca Empire. Because Northern nobles were required to educate their children in Cusco, this was maintained as the [[prestige dialect]] in the north.

Speakers from different points within any of the three regions can generally understand one another reasonably well. There are nonetheless significant local-level differences across each. ([[Wanka Quechua]], in particular, has several very distinctive characteristics that make the variety more challenging to understand, even for other Central Quechua speakers.) Speakers from different major regions, particularly Central or Southern Quechua, are not able to communicate effectively.

The lack of [[mutual intelligibility]] among the dialects is the basic criterion that defines Quechua not as a single language, but as a language family. The complex and progressive nature of how speech varies across the dialect continua makes it nearly impossible to differentiate discrete varieties; ''Ethnologue'' lists 45 varieties which are then divided into two groups; Central and Peripheral. Due to the non-intelligibility between the two groups, they are all classified as separate languages.<ref name=Ethnologue>{{cite web| url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=que| title = Ethnologue report for Quechua (macrolanguage) (SIL)}}</ref>

As a reference point, the overall degree of diversity across the family is a little less than that of the [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] families, and more of the order of [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] or [[Arabic]]. The greatest diversity is within Central Quechua, or Quechua I, which is believed to lie close to the [[Urheimat|homeland]] of the ancestral Proto-Quechua language.

===Family tree===
[[Alfredo Torero]] devised the traditional classification, the three divisions above, plus a fourth, a northern or Peruvian branch. The latter causes complications in the classification, however, as various dialects (e.g. [[Cajamarca–Cañaris Quechua|Cajamarca–Cañaris]], [[Pacaraos Quechua|Pacaraos]], and [[Yauyos–Chincha Quechua|Yauyos]]) have features of both Quechua I and Quechua II, and so are difficult to assign to either.

Torero classifies them as the following:

{{tree list}}
* '''Quechuan'''
** [[Quechua I]] or ''Quechua B,'' {{aka}} ''Central Quechua'' or ''Waywash,'' spoken in Peru's central highlands and coast.
*** The most widely spoken varieties are Huaylas, Huaylla Wanca, and Conchucos.
** {{ill|Quechua II|es}} or ''Quechua A'' or ''Peripheral Quechua'' or ''Wanp'una'', divided into
*** Yungay (Yunkay) Quechua or ''Quechua II A,'' spoken in the northern mountains of Peru; the most widely spoken dialect is Cajamarca.
*** [[Northern Quechua]] or ''Quechua II B,'' spoken in Ecuador ([[Kichwa language|Kichwa]]), northern Peru, and Colombia ([[Inga Kichwa]])
**** The most widely spoken varieties in this group are Chimborazo Highland Quichua and Imbabura Highland Quichua.
*** [[Southern Quechua]] or ''Quechua II C,'' spoken in Bolivia, Chile, southern Peru  and Northwest Argentina.
**** The most widely spoken varieties are South Bolivian, Cusco, Ayacucho, and Puno (Collao).
{{tree list/end}}

<!-- This schematic was introduced with the summary of Torero above, but it does not reflect Torero's classification, and its origin is not clear.
{{Clade
| label1=Proto-Quechua
| 1={{Clade
  | label1=[[Quechua I]]
  | 1={{Clade
     | label1=Central
     | 1={{Clade
        | label1='''[[Ancash Quechua|Huaylay]]'''
        | 1={{Clade
           | 1=Huaylas
           | 2=Conchucos}}
        | label2='''[[Alto Pativilca–Alto Marañón–Alto Huallaga Quechua|Alto Pativilca–Alto Marañón–Alto Huallaga]]'''
        | 2={{Clade
           | 1=Alto Pativilca
           | 2=Alto Marañón
           | 3=Alto Huallaga }}
        | label3=Huancay
        | 3={{Clade
           | 1='''[[Yaru Quechua|Yaru]]'''
           | 2='''[[Wanka Quechua|Jauja–Huanca]]'''
           | 3=[[Yauyos–Chincha Quechua|Huangáscar–Topará]] }} }}
     | 2=[[Pacaraos Quechua|Pacaraos]]{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}
       }}
  | label2=[[Quechua II]]
  | 2={{Clade
     | label1=Yungay <br>(Quechua II-A)
     | 1={{Clade
        | label2='''[[Northern Peruvian Quechua|Northern Peruvian]]'''
        | 2={{Clade
            | 1=Inkawasi–Kañaris
            | 2=Cajamarca}}
        | label1='''[[Yauyos–Chincha Quechua|Central]]'''
        | 1={{Clade
           | 1=Laraos
           | 2=[[Lincha Quechua|Lincha]]
           | 3=Apurí
           | 4=Chocos
           | 5=Madean }} }}
     | label2=Chinchay
     | 2={{Clade
        | label1=[[Northern Quechua|Northern]] <br>(Quechua II-B)
        | 1={{Clade
           | 1='''[[Kichwa|Ecuador–Colombia]]'''
           | 2=[[Chachapoyas Quechua|Chachapoyas]] (Amazonas)
           | 3=[[Lamas Quechua|Lamas]] (San Martín) }}
        | label2='''Classical'''{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}
        | 2={{Clade
           | 1=† ''quechua''
           | label2= '''[[Southern Quechua]]''' <br>(Quechua II-C)
           | 2={{Clade
              | 1=[[Ayacucho Quechua|Ayacucho]]
              | label2=Cuzco–Collao
              | 2={{Clade
                 | 1=[[Cuzco Quechua|Cuzco]]
                 | 2=Northern Bolivia
                 | 3=[[South Bolivian Quechua|Southern Bolivia]] }}
              | 3=[[Santiago del Estero Quichua|Santiago del Estero]] }}}} }} }}}} }}
-->
[[Willem Adelaar]] adheres to the Quechua I / Quechua II (central/peripheral) bifurcation. But, partially following later modifications by Torero, he reassigns part of Quechua II-A to Quechua I:<ref>Adelaar 2004.{{page needed|date=September 2013}}</ref>

{{Clade
| label1=Proto-Quechua
| 1={{Clade
 | label1=Quechua I
 | 1={{Clade
       | label1=Central
       | 1={{Clade
         | 1='''[[Ancash Quechua|Ancash]]''' (Huaylas–Conchucos)
         | 2='''[[Alto Pativilca–Alto Marañón–Alto Huallaga Quechua|Alto Pativilca–Alto Marañón–Alto Huallaga]]'''
         | 3='''[[Yaru Quechua|Yaru]]'''
         | 4='''[[Wanka Quechua|Wanka]]''' (Jauja–Huanca)
         | 5='''[[Yauyos–Chincha Quechua|Yauyos–Chincha]]''' (Huangáscar–Topará)
             }}
       | 2=[[Pacaraos Quechua|Pacaraos]]
     }}
 | label2=Quechua II
 | 2={{Clade
     | label1='''[[Cajamarca–Cañaris Quechua|Cajamarca–Cañaris]]'''<br>(Quechua II-A, reduced)
     | 1={{Clade
           | 1=[[Lambayeque Quechua|Lambayeque]] (Cañaris)
           | 2=[[Cajamarca Quechua|Cajamarca]]
         }}
     | label2=(Quechua II-A split)
     | 2=[[Lincha Quechua|Lincha]]
     | label3=(Quechua II-A split)
     | 3=Laraos
     | 4={{Clade
       | label1=Northern Quechua <br>(Quechua II-B)
       | 1={{Clade
             | 1='''[[Kichwa language|Kichwa]]''' ("Ecuadorian" or Highlands and Oriente)
             | 2=[[Chachapoyas Quechua|Chachapoyas]] (Amazonas)
             | 3=[[Lamas Quechua|Lamas]] (San Martín)
           }}
       | label2= '''[[Southern Quechua]]'''<br>(Quechua II-C)
       | 2={{Clade
               | 1=[[Ayacucho Quechua|Ayacucho]]
               | 2=[[Cusco Quechua|Cusco]]
               | 3=[[Puno Quechua|Puno]] (Collao)
               | 4=[[North Bolivian Quechua|Northern Bolivian]] (Apolo)
               | 5=[[South Bolivian Quechua|Southern Bolivia]]
               | 6=[[Santiagueño Quechua|Santiago del Estero]]}}
         }} }}
}} }}

Landerman (1991) does not believe a true genetic classification is possible and divides Quechua II so that the family has four geographical–typological branches: Northern, North Peruvian, Central, and Southern. He includes Chachapoyas and Lamas in North Peruvian Quechua so Ecuadorian is synonymous with Northern Quechua.<ref>Peter Landerman, 1991. ''Quechua dialects and their classification.'' PhD dissertation, UCLA</ref>

===Geographical distribution===
Quechua I (Central Quechua, ''Waywash'') is spoken in Peru's central highlands, from the [[Ancash Region]] to [[Huancayo]]. It is the most diverse branch of Quechua,<ref>Lyle Campbell, ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America'', Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 189</ref> to the extent that its divisions are commonly considered different languages.

Quechua II (Peripheral Quechua, ''Wamp'una'' "Traveler")
*II-A: Yunkay Quechua (North Peruvian Quechua) is scattered in Peru's occidental highlands.
*II-B: Northern Quechua (also known as ''Runashimi'' or, especially in Ecuador, [[Kichwa language|''Kichwa'']]) is mainly spoken in Colombia and Ecuador. It is also spoken in the Amazonian lowlands of Colombia and Ecuador, and in pockets of Peru.
*II-C: [[Southern Quechua]], in the highlands further south, from [[Huancavelica]] through the [[Ayacucho]], [[Cusco]], and [[Puno]] regions of [[Peru]], across much of [[Bolivia]], and in pockets in north-western [[Argentina]]. It is the most influential branch, with the largest number of speakers and the most important cultural and literary legacy.

===Cognates===
This is a sampling of words in several Quechuan languages:

{| class="wikitable"
|
! [[Ancash Quechua|Ancash]] (I)
! [[Wanka Quechua|Wanka]] ([[Quechua I|I]])
! [[Cajamarca Quechua|Cajamarca]] ([[Quechua II-A|II-A]])
! [[Lamas Quechua|San Martin]] (II-B)
! [[Kichwa language|Kichwa]] (II-B)
! [[Ayacucho Quechua|Ayacucho]] (II-C)
! [[Cusco Quechua|Cusco]] (II-C)
|- style="background:#f0f8ff;"
! 'one'
| huk<br />{{IPA|[uk ~ huk]}}
| suk, huk<br />{{IPA|[suk]}}, {{IPA|[huk]}}
| suq<br />{{IPA|[soχ]}}
| suk<br />{{IPA|[suk]}}
| shuk<br />{{IPA|[ʃuk]}}
| huk<br />{{IPA|[huk]}}
| huk<br />{{IPA|[hoχ]}}
|- style="background:#f0f8ff;"
! 'two'
| ishkay <br />{{IPA|[ɪʃkeˑ ~ ɪʃkɐj]}}
| ishkay <br />{{IPA|[iʃkaj]}}
| ishkay <br />{{IPA|[ɪʃkɐj]}}
| ishkay <br />{{IPA|[iʃkaj]}}
| ishkay <br />{{IPA|[iʃki ~ iʃkaj]}}
| iskay<br />{{IPA|[iskæj]}}
| iskay<br />{{IPA|[iskæj]}}
|- style="background:#f0f8ff;"
! 'ten'
| ćhunka, chunka<br />{{IPA|[ʈ͡ʂʊŋkɐ]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ʃʊŋkɐ]}}
| ćhunka<br />{{IPA|[ʈ͡ʂuŋka]}}
| ch'unka<br />{{IPA|[ʈ͡ʂʊŋɡɐ]}}
| chunka<br />{{IPA|[t͡ʃuŋɡa]}}
| chunka<br />{{IPA|[t͡ʃuŋɡɐ ~ t͡ʃuŋkɐ]}}
| chunka<br />{{IPA|[t͡ʃuŋkɐ]}}
| chunka<br />{{IPA|[t͡ʃuŋkɐ]}}
|- style="background:#f0f8ff;"
! 'sweet'
| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}
| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}
| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}
| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}
| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}
| miski<br />{{IPA|[mɪskɪ]}}
| misk'i<br />{{IPA|[mɪskʼɪ]}}
|- style="background:#f0f8ff;"
! 'white'
| yuraq<br />{{IPA|[jʊɾɑq ~ jʊɾɑχ]}}
| yulaq<br />{{IPA|[julah ~ julaː]}}
| yuraq<br />{{IPA|[jʊɾɑx]}}
| yurak<br />{{IPA|[jʊɾak]}}
| yurak<br />{{IPA|[jʊɾax ~ jʊɾak]}}
| yuraq<br />{{IPA|[jʊɾɑχ]}}
| yuraq<br />{{IPA|[jʊɾɑχ]}}
|- style="background:#f0f8ff;"
! 'he gives'
| qun<br />{{IPA|[qoŋ ~ χoŋ ~ ʁoŋ]}}
| qun<br />{{IPA|[huŋ ~ ʔuŋ]}}
| qun<br />{{IPA|[qoŋ]}}
| kun<br />{{IPA|[kuŋ]}}
| kun<br />{{IPA|[kuŋ]}}
| qun<br />{{IPA|[χoŋ]}}
| qun<br />{{IPA|[qoŋ]}}
|- style="background:#f0f8ff;"
! 'yes'
| awmi<br />{{IPA|[oːmi ~ ɐwmɪ]}}
| aw <br />{{IPA|[aw]}}
| ari<br />{{IPA|[ɐɾi]}}
| ari<br />{{IPA|[aɾi]}}
| ari<br />{{IPA|[aɾi]}}
| arí<br />{{IPA|[ɐˈɾi]}}
| arí<br />{{IPA|[ɐˈɾi]}}
|}

===Quechua and Aymara===
Quechua shares a large amount of vocabulary, and some striking structural parallels, with [[Aymara language|Aymara]], and the two families have sometimes been grouped together as a "[[Quechumaran languages|Quechumaran family]]". This hypothesis is generally rejected by specialists, however. The parallels are better explained by mutual influence and borrowing through intensive and long-term contact. Many Quechua–Aymara cognates are close, often closer than intra-Quechua cognates, and there is a little relationship in the [[affix]]al system. The [[Puquina language]] of the [[Tiwanaku Empire]] is a possible source for some of the shared vocabulary between Quechua and Aymara.<ref name="Moulianetal2015">{{cite journal |last1=Moulian |first1=Rodrigo |last2=Catrileo |first2=María |last3=Landeo |first3=Pablo |title=Afines Quechua en el Vocabulario Mapuche de Luis de Valdivia |journal=RLA. Revista de lingüística teórica y aplicada |date=December 2015 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=73–96 |doi=10.4067/S0718-48832015000200004 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Language contact===
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the [[Kunza language|Kunza]], [[Leco language|Leko]], [[Mapudungun languages|Mapudungun]], [[Mochika language|Mochika]], [[Uru-Chipaya languages|Uru-Chipaya]], [[Zaparo languages|Zaparo]], [[Arawak languages|Arawak]], [[Kandoshi language|Kandoshi]], [[Muniche language|Muniche]], [[Pukina language|Pukina]], [[Pano languages|Pano]], [[Barbakoa languages|Barbakoa]], [[Cholon-Hibito languages|Cholon-Hibito]], [[Jaqi languages|Jaqi]], [[Jivaro languages|Jivaro]], and [[Kawapana languages|Kawapana]] language families due to contact.<ref name="Jolkesky-2016">{{cite thesis |last=Jolkesky |first=Marcelo Pinho de Valhery |date=2016 |url=http://www.etnolinguistica.org/tese:jolkesky-2016-arqueoecolinguistica |title=Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas |type=Ph.D. dissertation |location=Brasília |publisher=University of Brasília |edition=2 |access-date=2020-06-04 |archive-date=2021-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418142223/http://www.etnolinguistica.org/tese:jolkesky-2016-arqueoecolinguistica |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Lexicon o Vocabulario de la lengua general del Peru 1560 first page of vocabulary list.jpg|thumb|''Vocabulary of the general language of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]] of Peru, called Quichua'' (1560). From [[Domingo de Santo Tomás]], the first writer in Quechua.]]