Editing Prince Rupert of the Rhine (section)

==Career during the First English Civil War==
Rupert is probably best remembered today for his role as a Royalist commander during the [[English Civil War]].<ref>Spencer, p. xiii.</ref> He had considerable success during the initial years of the war, his drive, determination and experience of European techniques bringing him early victories.<ref name="Spencer, p.55">Spencer, p. 55.</ref> As the war progressed, Rupert's youth and lack of maturity in managing his relationships with other Royalist commanders ultimately resulted in his removal from his post and ultimate retirement from the war.<ref>Kitson, p. 17.</ref> Throughout the conflict, however, Rupert also enjoyed a powerful symbolic position: he was an iconic Royalist [[Cavalier]] and as such was frequently the subject of both Parliamentarian and Royalist propaganda,<ref>Purkiss, 2007, p. 175.</ref> an image which has endured over the years.<ref>Spencer.</ref>

===Early phases, 1642–1643===
[[File:Charles Landseer - The Eve of the Battle of Edge Hill, 1642 - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|''[[The Eve of the Battle of Edgehill]]'' by [[Charles Landseer]], 1845. Charles I (in blue sash) holding a [[council of war]] at [[Edgecote]] on the day before the [[Battle of Edgehill]]. Rupert, seated, commanded the King's cavalry.]]

Rupert arrived in England following his period of imprisonment and final release from captivity in Germany. In August 1642, Rupert, along with his brother Prince [[Maurice of the Palatinate|Maurice]] and a number of professional soldiers, ran the gauntlet across the sea from the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]], and after one initial failure,<ref>Spencer, p. 54.</ref> evaded the pro-Parliamentary navy and landed in [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]].<ref>Wedgwood, p. 107.</ref> Riding across country, he found the King with a tiny army at [[Leicester Abbey]], and was promptly appointed [[Master of the Horse|General of Horse]], a coveted appointment at the time in European warfare.<ref name="Spencer, p.55"/> Rupert set about recruiting and training: with great effort he had put together a partially trained mounted force of 3,000 cavalry by the end of September.<ref>Spencer, p. 57.</ref> Rupert's reputation continued to rise and, leading a sudden, courageous charge, he routed a Parliamentarian force at [[Battle of Powick Bridge|Powick Bridge]], the first military engagement of the war. Although a small engagement, this had a propaganda value far exceeding the importance of the battle itself, and Rupert became an heroic figure for many young men in the Royalist camp.<ref>Wedgwood, pp. 115–116.</ref>

Rupert joined the King in the advance on London, playing a key role in the resulting [[Battle of Edgehill]] in October. Once again, Rupert was at his best with swift battlefield movements; the night before, he had undertaken a forced march and seized the summit of Edgehill, giving the Royalists a superior position.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 127.</ref> When he quarrelled with his fellow infantry commander, [[Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey|Robert Bertie]], however, some of the weaknesses of Rupert's character began to display themselves. Rupert vigorously interjected—probably correctly, but certainly tactlessly—that Lindsey should deploy his men in the modern Swedish fashion that Rupert was used to in Europe, which would have maximised their available firepower.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 128.</ref> The result was an argument in front of the troops and Lindsey's resignation and replacement by Sir [[Jacob Astley, 1st Baron Astley of Reading|Jacob Astley]]. In the subsequent battle Rupert's men made a dramatic cavalry charge, but despite his best efforts a subsequent scattering and loss of discipline turned a potential victory into a stalemate.<ref name="Wedgwood, p.129">Wedgwood, p. 129.</ref>
[[File:Prince Rupert at Edgehill.jpg|alt=Black and white illustration of a scene of a battle.|thumb|Illustration of Prince Rupert at Edgehill.]]
After Edgehill, Rupert asked Charles for a swift cavalry attack on London before the [[Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]]'s army could return. The King's senior counsellors, however, urged him to advance slowly on the capital with the whole army. By the time they arrived, the city had organised defences against them.<ref name="Wedgwood, p.129"/> Some argue that, in delaying, the Royalists had perhaps lost their best chance of winning the war, although others have argued that Rupert's proposed attack would have had trouble penetrating a hostile London. Instead, early in 1643, Rupert began to clear the South-West, taking [[Cirencester]] in February<ref>Wedgwood, p. 165.</ref> before moving further against [[Bristol]], a key port.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 170.</ref> Rupert took Bristol in July with his brother Maurice using [[Cornish people|Cornish]] forces and was appointed governor of the city.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 219.</ref> By mid-1643, Rupert had become so well known that he was an issue in any potential peace accommodation—Parliament was seeking to see him punished as part of any negotiated solution, and the presence of Rupert at the court, close to the King during the negotiations, was perceived as a bellicose statement in itself.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 172.</ref>

===Later stages, 1644–1646===
[[File:Van Dyck, Sir Anthony - George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol|George Digby]], by Sir Anthony Van Dyck; although a less successful soldier, Digby was an increasingly powerful political rival to Rupert within the Royalist court during the second half of the [[English Civil War]]|alt=A side-on portrait of George Digby, wearing a voluminous satin cloak and sporting a wispy ginger moustache.]]

During the second half of the war, political opposition within the Royalist senior leadership against Prince Rupert continued to grow. His personality during the war had made him both friends and enemies. He enjoyed a "frank and generous disposition", showed a "quickness of... intellect", was prepared to face grave dangers, and could be thorough and patient when necessary.<ref name="auto">Wedgwood, pp. 148–149.</ref> However, Prince Rupert lacked the social gifts of a [[courtier]], and his humour could turn into a "sardonic wit and a contemptuous manner": with a hasty temper, he was too quick to say whom he respected and whom he disliked.<ref name="auto"/> The result was that, while he could inspire great loyalty in some, especially with his men, he also made many enemies at the Royal court.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 149.</ref> When Prince Rupert [[Siege of Bristol (1643)|took Bristol]], he also slighted the [[William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset|Marquess of Hertford]], the lethargic but politically significant Royalist leader of the South-West.<ref>Wedgwood, pp. 219–220.</ref> Most critically, he fell out with [[George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol|George Digby]], a favourite of both the King and the Queen. Digby was a classic courtier and Rupert fell to arguing with him repeatedly in meetings.<ref>Spencer, p. 134.</ref> The result was that towards the end of the war Prince Rupert's position at court was increasingly undermined by his enemies.

Rupert continued to impress militarily. By 1644, now the [[Duke of Cumberland]] and [[Earl of Holderness]], he led the relief of [[Newark, England|Newark]], as well as [[York]] and its [[York Castle|castle]]. Having marched north, [[Storming of Bolton|taking Bolton]] and [[Liverpool]] along the way in two bloody assaults,<ref>Wedgwood, p.313; Spencer, p. 118.</ref> Rupert then intervened in Yorkshire in two highly effective manoeuvres, in the first outwitting the enemy forces at Newark with speed; in the second, striking across country and approaching York from the north.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 313.</ref> Rupert then commanded much of the royalist army at its defeat at [[Marston Moor]], with much of the blame falling on the poor working relationship between Rupert and the [[Marquess of Newcastle]],<ref>Wedgwood, p. 315.</ref> and orders from the King that wrongly conveyed a desperate need for a speedy success in the north.<ref>Spencer, p. 117.</ref>

In November 1644, Rupert was appointed general of the entire Royalist army, which increased already marked tensions between him and a number of the King's councillors. By May 1645, and now desperately short of supplies,<ref>Spencer, p. 148.</ref> Rupert captured [[Leicester]], but suffered a severe reversal at the [[Battle of Naseby]] a month later.<ref>Wedgwood, p.422.</ref> Although Rupert had counselled the King against accepting battle at Naseby, the opinions of Digby had won the day in council: nonetheless, Rupert's defeat damaged him, rather than Digby, politically.<ref>Wedgwood, pp. 422–423.</ref> After Naseby, Rupert regarded the Royalist cause as lost, and urged Charles to conclude a peace with Parliament. Charles, still supported by an optimistic Digby, believed he could win the war. By late summer, Prince Rupert had become [[Siege of Bristol (1645)|trapped in Bristol]] by Parliamentary forces. Faced with an impossible military situation on the ground, Rupert [[Royal Fort#History|surrendered Bristol]] in September 1645, and Charles dismissed him from his service and command.<ref>Spencer, p. 160.</ref>

Rupert responded by making his way across Parliamentary held territory to the King at [[Newark-on-Trent|Newark]] with Prince Maurice and around a hundred men, fighting their way through smaller enemy units and evading larger ones.<ref name="Wedgwood, p.471">Wedgwood, p.471.</ref> King Charles attempted to order Rupert to desist, fearing an armed coup, but Rupert arrived at the royal court anyway.<ref name="Wedgwood, p.471"/> After a difficult meeting, Rupert convinced the King to hold a [[court-martial]] over his conduct at Bristol, which exonerated him and Maurice.<ref name="Wedgwood, p.472">Wedgwood, p. 472.</ref> After a final argument over the fate of his friend [[Richard Willis, 1st Baronet|Richard Willis]], the governor of Newark, who had let Rupert into the royal court to begin with, Rupert resigned and left the service of King Charles, along with most of his best cavalry officers.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 473.</ref> Earlier interpretations of this event focused on Rupert's concern for his honour in the face of his initial dismissal by the King;<ref name="Wedgwood, p.472"/> later works have highlighted the practical importance of the courts martial to Rupert's future employability as a mercenary in Europe, given that Rupert knew that the war by this point was effectively lost.<ref>Spencer, p1.69.</ref> Rupert and Maurice spent the winter of 1645 in [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire|Woodstock]], examining options for employment under the [[Republic of Venice]], before returning to Oxford and the King in 1646.<ref>Spencer, p. 173.</ref> Rupert and the King were reconciled, the Prince remaining to defend Oxford when the King left for the north. After the ensuing [[Siege of Oxford|siege and surrender of Oxford]] in 1646, Parliament banished both Rupert and his brother from England.<ref>Spencer, pp. 176–177.</ref>

===Reputation===
[[File:Prince Rupert Birmingham.jpg|thumb|Rupert was a common figure of Parliamentarian [[propaganda]], depicted here, with his dog [[Boy (dog)|Boy]], pillaging the town of [[Birmingham]]|alt=The picture centres on Rupert riding a horse, with his pet dog beneath him. Rupert is holding a small pike and firing a pistol, and is clad in armour. On the left is a small representation of the town of Daventry; on the right a depiction of Birmingham, ablaze.]]
Rupert's contemporaries believed him to have been involved in some of the bloodier events of the war.  Rupert had grown up surrounded by the relatively savage customs of the Thirty Years' War in Europe.<ref name="Wedgwood, p.112">Wedgwood, p. 112.</ref> Shortly after his arrival in England he caused consternation by following similar practices; one of his early acts was to demand two thousand pounds from the people of [[Leicester]] for the King as the price of not sacking Leicester.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 122.</ref> Although in keeping with European practices, this was not considered appropriate behaviour in England and Rupert was reprimanded by the King.<ref name="Wedgwood, p.112"/>

Rupert's reputation never truly recovered, and in subsequent sieges and attacks he was frequently accused of acting without restraint. [[Birmingham]], a key arms producing town, was taken in April 1643,<ref>Newman, p. 31.</ref> and Rupert faced allegations—probably untrue—of wilfully burning the town to the ground (see the [[Battle of Camp Hill]]).<ref name="Spencer, p.86">Spencer, p. 86.</ref> Shortly afterwards Rupert attempted to take the town of [[Lichfield]], whose garrison had executed Royalist prisoners, angrily promising to kill all the soldiers inside.<ref name="Spencer, p.86"/> Only the urgent call for assistance from the King prevented him from doing so, forcing him to agree to more lenient terms in exchange for a prompt surrender.<ref>Spencer, p. 88.</ref> Towards the end of the war, practices were changing for the worse across all sides; a rebellious Leicester was retaken by the Prince in May 1645, and no attempt was made to limit the subsequent killing and plunder.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 421.</ref>

Rupert was accordingly a prominent figure in Parliamentary propaganda. He faced numerous accusations of [[witchcraft]], either personally or by proxy through his pet dog, Boy, sometimes called Pudel, a large white hunting poodle which accompanied Rupert everywhere from 1642 up until the dog's death at Marston Moor and which was suspected of being a witch's [[familiar]]. There were numerous accounts of Boy's abilities; some suggested that he was the Devil in disguise, come to help Rupert. Pro-Royalist publications ultimately produced parodies of these,<ref>Purkiss, 2001, p. 276.</ref> including one which listed Rupert's dog as being a "Lapland Lady" transformed into a white dog;<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://academic.oup.com/liverpool-scholarship-online/book/43412/chapter-abstract/363236199?redirectedFrom=fulltext|title=The Black Legend of Prince Rupert's Dog|first=Mark|last=Stoyle|chapter='Lapland Lady': The poodle and the pamphleteers, January–February 1643 |date=15 August 2011|publisher=Liverpool University Press|pages=50–68|doi=10.5949/liverpool/9780859898591.003.0005|isbn=978-0-85989-859-1 }}</ref> Boy was able, apparently, to find hidden treasure, possessed invulnerability to attack, could catch bullets fired at Rupert in his mouth, and could prophesy as well as the 16th-century [[Fortune-telling|soothsayer]], [[Mother Shipton]].<ref>Purkiss, 2007, p. 377.</ref> Similar stories from the period relate to Rupert's pet monkey. Like his dog, the monkey was featured in newsprint of the day and was also reputed to have [[shapeshifting]] powers, being able to disguise itself behind enemy lines.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://historyofliverpool.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Prince-Ruperts-Malignant-She-Monkey-1643.jpg|title=Newsprint circa 1643}}</ref>