Editing Primer (molecular biology) (section)

===PCR primer design===
The [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) uses a pair of custom primers to direct DNA elongation toward each other at opposite ends of the sequence being amplified. These primers are typically between 18 and 24 bases in length and must code for only the specific upstream and downstream sites of the sequence being amplified. A primer that can bind to multiple regions along the DNA will amplify them all, eliminating the purpose of PCR.<ref name=":0" />

A few criteria must be brought into consideration when designing a pair of PCR primers. Pairs of primers should have similar melting temperatures since annealing during PCR occurs for both strands simultaneously, and this shared melting temperature must not be either too much higher or lower than the reaction's [[Annealing (biology)|annealing temperature]]. A primer with a ''T''<sub>m</sub> (melting temperature) too much higher than the reaction's annealing temperature may mishybridize and extend at an incorrect location along the DNA sequence. A ''T''<sub>m</sub> significantly lower than the annealing temperature may fail to anneal and extend at all.

Additionally, primer sequences need to be chosen to uniquely select for a region of DNA, avoiding the possibility of hybridization to a similar sequence nearby. A commonly used method for selecting a primer site is [[BLAST (biotechnology)|BLAST]] search, whereby all the possible regions to which a primer may bind can be seen. Both the nucleotide sequence as well as the primer itself can be BLAST searched. The free [[National Center for Biotechnology Information|NCBI]] tool Primer-BLAST integrates primer design and BLAST search into one application,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/tools/primer-blast/| title = Primer-BLAST}}</ref> as do commercial software products such as ePrime and [[Beacon Designer]]. Computer simulations of theoretical PCR results ([[In silico PCR|Electronic PCR]]) may be performed to assist in primer design by giving melting and annealing temperatures, etc.<ref name="ePCR2">{{cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sutils/e-pcr/|title=Electronic PCR|publisher=NCBI - National Center for Biotechnology Information|access-date=13 March 2012}}</ref>

As of 2014, many online tools are freely available for primer design, some of which focus on specific applications of PCR. Primers with high specificity for a subset of DNA templates in the presence of many similar variants can be designed using by some software (e.g. [[DECIPHER (software)|DECIPHER]]<ref name=About>{{cite web |url=https://decipher.sanger.ac.uk/about |title=About DECIPHER |publisher= Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute |access-date=12 February 2014}}</ref>) or be developed independently for a specific group of animals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karabanov |first1=D.P. |last2=Bekker |first2=E.I. |last3=Pavlov |first3=D.D. |last4=Borovikova |first4=E.A. |last5=Kodukhova |first5=Y.V. |last6=Kotov |first6=A.A. |date=1 February 2022 |title=New Sets of Primers for DNA Identification of Non-Indigenous Fish Species in the Volga-Kama Basin (European Russia) |journal=[[Water (journal)|Water]] |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=437 |issn=2073-4441 |doi=10.3390/w14030437 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Selecting a specific region of DNA for primer binding requires some additional considerations. Regions high in mononucleotide and dinucleotide repeats should be avoided, as loop formation can occur and contribute to mishybridization. Primers should not easily anneal with other primers in the mixture; this phenomenon can lead to the production of 'primer dimer' products contaminating the end solution. Primers should also not anneal strongly to themselves, as internal hairpins and loops could hinder the annealing with the template DNA.

When designing primers, additional nucleotide bases can be added to the back ends of each primer, resulting in a customized cap sequence on each end of the amplified region. One application for this practice is for use in [[TA cloning]], a special subcloning technique similar to PCR, where efficiency can be increased by adding AG tails to the 5′ and the 3′ ends.<ref>Adenosine added on the primer 50 end improved TA cloning efficiency of polymerase chain reaction products, Ri-He Peng, Ai-Sheng Xiong, Jin-ge Liu, Fang Xu, Cai Bin, Hong Zhu, Quan-Hong Yao</ref>