Editing Pope Adrian IV (section)

===Visit to Scandinavia, 1152===
[[File:Trondheim-cathedral-1.jpg|thumb|Trondheim Cathedral|alt=modern photo of Trondheim Cathedral, 2005]]
Former [[Canon residentiary]] of St Albans Abbey, Andes Bergquist has described Breakspear's journey to northern Europe as "one of the better documented" of his career. It is possible that Boso—from whom much of the information comes—was in his entourage, although this is not certain.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|pp=41, 42}} On his arrival, Norway was in a [[Civil war era in Norway|state of civil war]] and the authority of the King, [[Inge I of Norway|Inge I]], was neither strong nor respected. Breakspear reconciled the warring factions—albeit temporarily—and restored the monarchy.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} Although no official record of his instructions survives, Bergquist suggests that they can be inferred from his actions: to divide the existing Archbishopric of Lund—which covered both Norway and Sweden–into two distinct national metropolitans, to arrange payment of Peter's Pence and to generally reorganise the church along Italian and European lines.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=42}}

Breakspear may have travelled to Norway via France and England{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=43}}—where, Sayers speculates, he could have recruited merchant contacts who knew the region.{{sfn|Sayers|2004}}{{sfn|Andås|Ekroll|Haug|Petersen|2007|p=9}} His mission may have been kept quiet, as Bergquist notes his arrival seems to have been unexpected: Archbishop Eskil of Lund had recently left to visit France, and the King of Norway was on a military campaign.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=44}} His first stop was Norway. At some point, Breakspear presided over a council at [[Nidaros]]. This council, says Robinson, "strengthened the economic position of the church and the social status of the clergy".{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} Its timing though is difficult to ascertain, says Bergquist: Autumn 1152 seems to allow too little time to organise such a major council following his arrival, yet much later and the depth of a Norwegian winter is even more unlikely.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|pp=44–45}}

The focal point of the [[Olaf II of Norway#Liturgical cult|cult of St Olaf]],{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} Nidaros had until that point been only an episcopate.{{sfn|Andås|Ekroll|Haug|Petersen|2007|p=9}} Adrian's council was intended to promulgate [[Canon law of the Catholic Church|canons]].{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} To this end Breakspear made Nidaros a geographically extensive ecclesiastical [[province]], covering the whole of Norway, Iceland and Greenland, as well as the [[Faroe Islands|Faroe]], [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland Island]]s. Breakspear also authorised the expansion of what was to become Europe's [[Trondheim Cathedral|most northerly medieval cathedral]], and its largest.{{sfn|Andås|Ekroll|Haug|Petersen|2007|p=9}} While in Norway he founded three [[cathedral schools]], at Nidaros in 1152 and two more at [[Bergen]] and [[Hamar]] the following year.{{sfn|Sjåvik|2008|p=63}} His work in Norway earned him the praise of contemporary Icelandic writer and politician, [[Snorri Sturluson]].{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=200}}

If the Council of Nidaros was held in the early months of 1153, suggests Bergquist, then it appears that Breakspear sailed to Sweden as soon as it was concluded.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=44}} His activities in Sweden followed a similar course to those in Norway.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=46}} He called another council, this time at [[Linköping]], which reorganised the Swedish church under the [[Archbishop of Lund]] (it had previously been subject to German patriarchy).{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} He also received permission from the [[Swedish monarchy]] to introduce [[Peter's pence]]{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} and to reduce the influence of the lay community on the church generally.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=46}} His visit to Sweden was recorded by contemporary chroniclers and published in the 13th century.{{sfn|Phelpstead|2001|p=xxxiv}} Similarly to what he had done in Norway with Trondheim,{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} Adrian attempted to create an archepiscopal see in Sweden. The [[Swedes (tribe)|Swedes]] and the [[Geats]] could not come into an agreement on the location of the see, and the venture came to nothing.{{sfn|Eden|2006|pp=292–293}} According to Bergquist, Breakspear "was taken aback by this unseemly conflict, and declared that neither people deserved this highest ecclesiastical honour".{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=46}} Indeed, he suggests that it is possible that Breakspear's plans fell through thanks to the machinations of the recently returned Archbishop Eskil. Eskil, having discovered that he had lost half his archepiscopate in his absence, may have stirred up the Swedes' and Geats' rivalries to ensure against losing any more. In the event, Breakspear appears to have repaired relations with Eskil, assuring him that Eskil would receive far more than he had lost. As a result, he placed Eskil in charge of the new Swedish metropolitan.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=46}}

Duggan describes Adrian's legation in the north as a "diplomatic triumph",{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=153}} being so successful, says Sayers, "that he was later seen as the apostle of Scandinavia".{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} Boso later lauded how Breakspear brought "peace to the kingdoms, law to the barbarians, tranquillity to the monasteries, order to the churches, discipline to the clergy and a people pleasing to God, devoted to good works".{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} He successfully introduced a new Scandinavian [[tythe]]—the ''denarium sancti Petri'', or payment to St Peter—a financial acknowledgement by the Scandinavian church of Papal primacy.{{sfn|Sheehy|1961|pp=48–49}} Breakspear, argues the scholar Andrew Beck, "gave the Swedish church its hierarchy and its attachment to Rome".{{sfn|Beck|1940|p=383}}{{refn|Breakspear was one of two English clerics who influenced Scandinavian Christianity at this time; the other was [[Henry (bishop of Finland)|Henry, Bishop of Uppsala]], who was originally from St Albans.{{sfn|Singleton|1998|p=18}}|group=note}} He left Scandinavia in autumn 1154; he seems to have left a generally good impression in the region: A later [[Kings' sagas|saga]] refers to Breakspear as "the good cardinal...now considered a saint".{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=41}} On his return to Rome he found Pope Eugenius had died the previous year, and that his successor had followed him only a few weeks before; the [[College of Cardinals]] was seeking a successor.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=41}}