Editing Pogrom (section)

== History of anti-Jewish pogroms ==
[[File:Hep Hep Krawalle 1819.jpg|thumb|The [[Hep-Hep riots]] in [[Würzburg]], 1819. On the left, two peasant women are assaulting a Jewish man with a pitchfork and a broom. On the right, a man wearing spectacles, tails and a six-button waistcoat, "perhaps a pharmacist or a schoolteacher,"<ref name="metropolitan" /> holds a Jewish man by the throat and is about to club him with a truncheon. The houses are being looted. A contemporary engraving by [[Johann Michael Voltz]].]]

The first recorded anti-Jewish riots took place in [[Alexandrian riots (38 CE)|Alexandria in the year 38 CE]], followed by the [[Alexandria riot (66)|more known riot of 66 CE]]. Other notable events took place in Europe during the [[Middle Ages]]. Jewish communities were targeted in [[History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)#Massacres at London and York (1189–1190)|1189 and 1190 in England]] and throughout Europe during the [[Crusades]] and the [[Black Death Jewish persecutions|Black Death]] of 1348–1350, including in [[Toulon]], [[Erfurt massacre (1349)|Erfurt]], [[Basel massacre|Basel]], Aragon, Flanders<ref>''Codex Judaica: chronological index of Jewish history''; p. 203 Máttis Kantor – 2005 "The Jews were savagely attacked and massacred, by sometimes hysterical mobs."</ref><ref>John Marshall ''John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture''; p. 376 2006 "The period of the Black Death saw the massacre of Jews across Germany, and in Aragon, and Flanders,"</ref> and [[Strasbourg massacre|Strasbourg]].<ref>Anna Foa ''The Jews of Europe after the black death '' 2000 p. 13 "The first massacres took place in April 1348 in Toulon, where the [[Jewish quarter (diaspora)|Jewish quarter]] was raided and forty Jews were murdered in their homes. Shortly afterwards, violence broke out in Barcelona."</ref> Some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed during this period,<ref>{{cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |title=The Renaissance |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1953 |pages=730–731 |isbn=0-671-61600-5}}</ref> extending further to the [[Brussels massacre]] of 1370. On [[Holy Saturday]] of 1389, a riot began in [[Prague]] that led to the burning of the Jewish quarter, the killing of many Jews, and the suicide of many Jews trapped in the main synagogue; the number of dead was estimated at 400–500 men, women and children.<ref>{{cite web |first=Barbara |last=Newman |url=https://www.academia.edu/1470909 |title=The Passion of the Jews of Prague: The Pogrom of 1389 and the Lessons of a Medieval Parody |work=Church History |volume=81 |issue=1 |date=March 2012 |pages=1–26}}</ref> Attacks against Jews also took place in [[Barcelona]] and other [[Spain in the Middle Ages|Spanish]] cities during the [[massacre of 1391]].

The brutal murders of Jews and Poles occurred during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] of 1648–1657 in present-day [[Ukraine]], then within the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Herman Rosenthal |author-link=Herman Rosenthal |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=469&letter=C |title=Chmielnicki, Bogdan Zinovi |website=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] |year=1901}}</ref> Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytsky's [[Zaporozhian Cossacks|Cossacks]] ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children,{{efn|1=Historians, who put the number of killed Jewish civilians at between 40,000 and 100,000 during the [[Khmelnytsky Pogrom]]s in 1648–1657, include:
* Naomi E. Pasachoff, Robert J. Littman (2005). ''A Concise History Of The Jewish People'', Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|0-7425-4366-8}}, p. 182.
* [[David Theo Goldberg]], John Solomos (2002). ''A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies'', Blackwell, {{ISBN|0-631-20616-7}}, p. 68.
* Micheal Clodfelter (2002). ''Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999'', McFarland, p. 56: estimated at 56,000 dead.
}}{{efn|1=Historians estimating that around 100,000 Jews were killed include:
* Cara Camcastle. ''The More Moderate Side of Joseph de Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy'', McGill-Queen's Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-7735-2976-4}}, p. 26.
* [[Martin Gilbert]] (1999). ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|0-231-10965-2}}, p. 219.
* Manus I. Midlarsky. ''The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century'', Cambridge University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-521-81545-2}}, p. 352.
* Oscar Reiss (2004). ''The Jews in Colonial America'', McFarland, {{ISBN|0-7864-1730-7}}, pp. 98–99.
* Colin Martin Tatz (2003). ''With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide'', Verso, {{ISBN|1-85984-550-9}}, p. 146.
* Samuel Totten (2004). ''Teaching about Genocide: Issues, Approaches and Resources'', Information Age Publishing, {{ISBN|1-59311-074-X}}, p. 25.
* Mosheh Weiss (2004). ''A Brief History of the Jewish People'', Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|0-7425-4402-8}}, p. 193.
}} or perhaps many more.{{efn|1=Historians who estimate that more than 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in 1648–1657 include:
* [[Meyer Waxman]] (2003). ''History of Jewish Literature Part 3'', Kessinger, {{ISBN|0-7661-4370-8}}, p. 20: estimated at two hundred thousand Jews killed.
* Micheal Clodfelter (2002). ''Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999'', McFarland, p. 56: estimated at between 150,000 and 200,000 Jewish victims.
* Zev Garber, Bruce Zuckerman (2004). ''Double Takes: Thinking and Rethinking Issues of Modern Judaism in Ancient Contexts'', University Press of America, {{ISBN|0-7618-2894-X}}, p. 77, footnote 17: estimated at 100,000–500,000 Jews.
* ''[[The Columbia Encyclopedia]]'' (2001–2005), "Chmielnicki Bohdan", 6th ed.: estimated at over 100,000 Jews.
* Robert Melvin Spector (2005). ''World without Civilization: Mass Murder and the Holocaust, History and Analysis'', University Press of America, {{ISBN|0-7618-2963-6}}, p. 77: estimated at more than 100,000.
* Sol Scharfstein (2004). ''Jewish History and You'', KTAV, {{ISBN|0-88125-806-7}}, p. 42: estimated at more than 100,000 Jews killed.}} However, these figures are contested as being too high, with the lowest estimates suggesting that 18,000–20,000 Jews died out of a total population of 40,000, many due to disease and famine.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Stampfer | first=Shaul | title=[No title found] | journal=Jewish History | volume=17 | issue=2 | date=2003 | doi=10.1023/A:1022330717763 | pages=207–227 | url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1022330717763 | access-date=2025-04-26}}</ref>

An outbreak of violence against Jews ([[Hep-Hep riots]]) occurred at the beginning of the 19th century in reaction to [[Jewish emancipation]] in the [[German Confederation]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Amos |last=Elon |author-link=Amos Elon |year=2002 |title=The Pity of It All: A History of the Jews in Germany, 1743–1933 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Books]] |isbn=0-8050-5964-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/pityofitallhisto00elon/page/103 103] |url=https://archive.org/details/pityofitallhisto00elon/page/103}}</ref>

=== Pogroms in the Russian Empire ===
[[File:Pogrom de Chisinau - 1903 - 1.jpg|thumb|Victims of a pogrom in [[Chișinău|Kishinev]], Bessarabia, 1903]]{{Further|Pogroms in the Russian Empire}}

The [[Russian Empire]], which previously had very few Jews, acquired territories in the [[Russian Partition]] that contained large Jewish populations, during the military [[partitions of Poland]] in 1772, 1793 and 1795.<ref name="Davies60">{{cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |author-link=Norman Davies |title=God's Playground: a history of Poland |id=Volume II: Revised Edition |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |year=2005 |chapter=Rossiya: The Russian Partition (1772–1918) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Tbed6iMNLEC&q=alien+imposition |pages=60–61 |isbn=978-0-19-925340-1 |title-link=God's Playground}}</ref> In conquered territories, a new political entity called the [[Pale of Settlement]] was formed in 1791 by [[Catherine the Great]]. Most Jews from the former Commonwealth were allowed to reside only within the Pale, including families expelled by royal decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow and other large Russian cities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/shtetl |title=Shtetl |website=[[Encyclopaedia Judaica]] |via=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] |publisher=The Gale Group}} ''Also in:'' {{cite web |url=http://www.aish.com/jl/h/48956361.html |title=Pale of Settlement |website=History Crash Course #56 |author=Rabbi Ken Spiro |date=9 May 2009 |publisher=Aish.com}}</ref> The 1821 [[Odessa pogroms]] marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia; there were four more such pogroms in [[Odessa]] before the end of the century.<ref name="H-DL">{{cite journal |first=Heinz-Dietrich |last=Löwe |title=Pogroms in Russia: Explanations, Comparisons, Suggestions |journal=Jewish Social Studies |series=New Series |access-date=14 November 2023 |volume=11 |number=1 |date=Autumn 2004 |page=17– |quote='Pogroms were concentrated in time. Four phases can be observed: in 1819, 1830, 1834, and 1818-19.' |doi=10.1353/jss.2005.0007 |s2cid=201771701 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/179974}}
{{failed verification|date=September 2016}}</ref> Following the assassination of [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] in 1881 by [[Narodnaya Volya#Assassination of Tsar Alexander II|Narodnaya Volya]], anti-Jewish events turned into a wave of over 200 pogroms by their modern definition, which lasted for several years.<ref name="Klier 2013 Note 45">{{cite book |title=Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History |author1=John Doyle Klier |author1-link=John Klier |author2=Shlomo Lambroza |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T3D7CmSOMfIC&q=Odessa+1881+encyclopedia |page=376 |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52851-1}} ''Also in:'' {{cite book |title=Shatterzone of Empires |author=Omer Bartov |author-link=Omer Bartov |year=2013 |quote=Note 45. It should be remembered that for all the violence and property damage caused by the 1881 pogroms, the number of deaths could be counted on one hand. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xam0fUlrXfkC&q=number+counted+one+hand |page=97|publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00631-8}} For further information, see: {{cite book |title=Russian Jews Between the Reds and the Whites, 1917–1920 |author=Oleg Budnitskii |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-8122-0814-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dLdhSUZI-AYC&q=Alexander+watershed |pages=17–20}}</ref> Jewish self-governing ''[[:wikt:Kehillah|Kehillah]]'' were abolished by [[Nicholas I of Russia|Tsar Nicholas I]] in 1844.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Henry Abramson |author-link=Henry Abramson |url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/02summer/pdf2/abramson_large.pdf |title=The end of intimate insularity: new narratives of Jewish history in the post-Soviet era |journal=Acts |date=10–13 July 2002}}</ref>

There is some disagreement about the level of planning from the Tsarist authorities and the motives for the attacks.<ref name="Zaretsky - quote 1">{{cite news |last1=Zaretsky |first1=Robert |title=Why so many people call the Oct. 7 massacre a 'pogrom' — and what they miss when they do so |url=https://forward.com/culture/567188/pogrom-october-7-massacre-israel-yerushalmi/ |access-date=6 June 2024 |work=[[The Forward]] |date=27 October 2023 |language=en |quote=Thanks to the work of the historian John Klier, we also know that the Czarist authorities neither choreographed nor encouraged the pogroms. Instead, they were mostly spontaneous and perhaps as much about managing social status as they were about murdering Jews.}}</ref>

The first in 20th-century Russia was the [[Kishinev pogrom]] of 1903 in which 49 Jews were killed, hundreds wounded, 700 homes destroyed and 600 businesses pillaged.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia Kishinef">{{Cite Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Kishinef (Kishinev) |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9350-kishinef-kishinev |first1=Herman|last1=Rosenthal |first2=Max|last2=Rosenthal}}</ref> In the same year, pogroms took place in [[Gomel]] (Belarus), [[Smila|Smela]], [[Feodosiya]] and [[Melitopol]] (Ukraine). Extreme savagery was typified by mutilations of the wounded.<ref name="P.J." /> They were followed by the [[Zhitomir]] pogrom (with 29 killed),<ref>{{cite book |title=Lev Shternberg |author=Sergei Kan |author-link=Sergei Kan |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8032-2470-4 |page=156 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XOfZ6ivgY8C&q=Zhitomir+Black+Hundreds}}</ref> and the [[Kiev pogrom (1905)|Kiev pogrom]] of October 1905 resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews.<ref name="S.L." /> In three years between 1903 and 1906, about 660 pogroms were recorded in Ukraine and Bessarabia; half a dozen more in Belorussia, carried out with the Russian government's complicity, but no anti-Jewish pogroms were recorded in Poland.<ref name="P.J.">{{cite book |title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of War |first=Paul |last=Joseph |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |page=1353 |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4833-5988-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idw0DQAAQBAJ&q=1903+Extreme+savagery}}</ref> At about that time, the [[General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia|Jewish Labor Bund]] began organizing armed self-defense units ready to shoot back, and the pogroms subsided for a number of years.<ref name="S.L.">{{cite book |first=Shlomo |last=Lambroza |title=Current Research on Anti-Semitism: Hostages of Modernization |editor-first=Herbert A. |editor-last=Strauss |editor-link=Herbert A. Strauss |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |year=1993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOFkWX8EC4cC&q=1905+self-defence+efforts |isbn=978-3-11-013715-6 |pages=1256, 1244–45 |chapter=Jewish self-defence}}</ref> According to professor [[Colin Tatz]], between 1881 and 1920 there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine (''see: [[Southwestern Krai]] parts of [[Pale of Settlement#Final demographics|the Pale]]'') which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless.<ref name="Tatz 2016 p26">{{cite book |title=The Magnitude of Genocide |first=Colin |last=Tatz |author-link=Colin Tatz |others=Winton Higgins |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4408-3161-4 |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1WaCwAAQBAJ&q=four+decades+250%2C000}}</ref><ref name="Kleg" /> This violence across Eastern Europe prompted a wave of [[Russian diaspora|Jewish migration]] westward that totaled about 2.5 million people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Diner |first=Hasia |author-link=Hasia Diner |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520939929/html |title=The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |date=23 August 2004 |isbn=978-0-520-93992-9 |pages=71–111 |doi=10.1525/9780520939929 |s2cid=243416759}}</ref>

=== Eastern Europe after World War I ===
[[File:Ukraina1919.jpg|thumb|Map of pogroms in Ukraine between 1918 and 1920 per casualties]]
{{Further|Pogroms of the Russian Civil War}}

Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the [[Russian Civil War]] in the aftermath of World War I. Professor [[Zvi Gitelman]] (in ''A Century of Ambivalence'', originally published in 1988) estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine, thus amounting to the greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648.<ref name="Gitelman 2001 p65">{{cite book |last=Gitelman |first=Zvi Y. |author-link=Zvi Gitelman |year=2001 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f2rng6jDW4C&q=Kiev+March+1919+since+1648 |title=A Century of Ambivalence |chapter=Revolution and the Ambiguities |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |id=Chapter&nbsp;2 |isbn=978-0-253-33811-2}}</ref> The [[Kiev pogroms of 1919]], according to Gitelman, were the first of a subsequent wave of pogroms in which between 30,000 and 70,000 Jews were massacred across Ukraine; although more recent assessments{{by whom|date=November 2024}} put the Jewish death toll at more than 100,000.<ref name="Gitelman">{{cite book |first=Zvi Y. |last=Gitelman |author-link=Zvi Gitelman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f2rng6jDW4C |title=A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present |pages=65–70 |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-253-33811-2}}</ref><ref name="Kadish 1992 p87">{{cite book |first=Sharman |last=Kadish |author-link=Sharman Kadish |title=Bolsheviks and British Jews: The Anglo-Jewish Community, Britain, and the Russian Revolution |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=87 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhkA1VpX5KQC&q=%22kiev+pogrom%22+1919&pg=RA5-PA286 |isbn=978-0-7146-3371-8 |year=1992}}</ref>{{verify quote|date=November 2024}}

[[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] in his controversial 2002 book ''[[Two Hundred Years Together]]'' provided additional statistics from research conducted by [[Nahum Gergel]] (1887–1931), published in Yiddish in 1928 and English in 1951. Gergel counted 1,236 incidents of anti-Jewish violence between 1918 and 1921, and estimated that 887 mass pogroms occurred, the remainder being classified as "excesses" not assuming mass proportions.<ref name="Kleg" /><ref name="Levin 1991 p43" /> Of all the pogroms accounted for in Gergel's research:
* About 40&nbsp;percent were perpetrated by the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] forces led by [[Symon Petliura]]. The Republic issued orders condemning pogroms,<ref name="Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation" /> but lacked authority to intervene.<ref name="Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation">{{cite book |first=Serhy |last=Yekelchyk |author-link=Serhy Yekelchyk |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CHiBwAAQBAJ&q=Petliura+pogroms |title=Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-530546-3 |page=106}}</ref> After May 1919 the Directory lost its role as a credible governing body; almost 75 percent of pogroms occurred between May and September of that year.<ref name="Magocsi 2010 p537" >{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC&q=Petliura+1%2C236+pogroms |title=History of Ukraine – The Land and Its Peoples |first=Paul Robert |last=Magocsi |author-link=Paul Robert Magocsi |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4426-4085-6 |page=537}}</ref> Thousands of Jews were killed only for being Jewish, without any political affiliations.<ref name="Kleg">{{cite book |title=Hate Prejudice and Racism |first=Milton |last=Kleg |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=1993 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKrrSa7WqNwC&q=1%2C326+pogroms+Ukraine |isbn=978-0-7914-1536-8}}</ref>
* 25&nbsp;percent by the Ukrainian [[Green armies|Green Army]] and various [[Ukrainian nationalist]] gangs,
* 17&nbsp;percent by the [[White Army]], especially the forces of [[Anton Denikin]],
* 8.5&nbsp;percent of Gergel's total was attributed to pogroms carried out by men of the [[Red Army]] (more specifically [[Semyon Budenny]]'s First Cavalry, most of whose soldiers had previously served under Denikin).<ref name="Levin 1991 p43" /> These pogroms were not, however, sanctioned by the Bolshevik leadership; the high command "vigorously condemned these pogroms and disarmed the guilty regiments", and the pogroms would soon be condemned by [[Mikhail Kalinin]] in a speech made at a military parade in Ukraine.<ref name="Levin 1991 p43">{{cite book |first=Nora |last=Levin |author-link=Nora Levin |year=1991 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgQUCgAAQBAJ&q=Bolshevik+disarmed |title=The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8147-5051-3 |page=43}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Encyclopaedia Judaica |year=2008 |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0016_0_15895.html |title=Pogroms |encyclopedia=The Jewish Virtual Library}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Budnitski |first=Oleg |script-title=he:יהודי רוסיה בין האדומים ללבנים |trans-title=Russian Jews Between the Reds and the Whites |date=1997 |journal=Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies |volume=12 |pages=189–198 |jstor=23535861 |issn=0333-9068}}</ref>
Gergel's overall figures, which are generally considered conservative, are based on the testimony of witnesses and newspaper reports collected by the ''Mizrakh-Yidish Historiche Arkhiv'' which was first based in Kiev, then Berlin and later New York. The English version of Gergel's article was published in 1951 in the [[YIVO]] ''Annual of Jewish Social Science'' titled "The Pogroms in the Ukraine in 1918–1921".<ref>{{cite journal |first=Henry |last=Abramson |author-link=Henry Abramson |title=Jewish Representation in the Independent Ukrainian Governments of 1917–1920 |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |volume=50 |issue=3 |date=September 1991 |pages=542–550 |doi=10.2307/2499851 |jstor=2499851 |s2cid=181641495 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/div-classtitlejewish-representation-in-the-independent-ukrainian-governments-of-1917-1920div/49220526A769CE874099110B4A6A835C}}</ref>

On 8 August 1919, during the [[Polish–Soviet War]], Polish troops took over [[Minsk]] in [[Operation Minsk]]. They killed 31 Jews suspected of supporting the Bolshevist movement, beat and attacked many more, looted 377 Jewish-owned shops (aided by the local civilians) and ransacked many private homes.<ref name="HM414">{{cite book |title=All in a Life-time |first=Henry |last=Morgenthau |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_P-UEAAAAYAAJ |quote=Minsk Bolsheviks. |publisher=Doubleday & Page |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_P-UEAAAAYAAJ/page/n432 414] |year=1922 |oclc=25930642}}</ref><ref name="Andrew_Sloin_2017">{{cite book |first=Andrew |last=Sloin |title=The Jewish Revolution in Belorussia: Economy, Race, and Bolshevik Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzrqDQAAQBAJ |year=2017 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-02463-3}}.</ref> The "Morgenthau's report of October 1919 stated that there is no question that some of the Jewish leaders exaggerated these evils."<ref name="SW166">{{cite book |title=The United States and Poland |first=Piotr Stefan |last=Wandycz |author-link=Piotr S. Wandycz |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1980 |id=American foreign policy library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_XaFaNshCrkC&pg=PA166 |isbn=978-0-674-92685-1 |page=166}}</ref><ref name="PDS85">{{cite book |title=Poland, 1918–1945: an Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic |first=Peter D. |last=Stachura |author-link=Peter Stachura |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-415-34358-9 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BkKuir9oQYMC&pg=PA85}}</ref> According to Elissa Bemporad, the "violence endured by the Jewish population under the Poles encouraged popular support for the Red Army, as Jewish public opinion welcomed the establishment of the [[Belorussian SSR]]."<ref name="Elissa_Bemporad_2013">{{cite book |first=Elissa |last=Bemporad |title=Becoming Soviet Jews: The Bolshevik Experiment in Minsk |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gV64kQQyHGkC |year=2013 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00827-5}}</ref>

After the [[First World War]], during the localized armed conflicts of independence, 72 Jews were killed and 443 injured in the 1918 [[Lwów pogrom (1918)|Lwów pogrom]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Joanna B. |last=Michlic |year=2006 |title=Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6h2pI7o_zQC&pg=PA111 |page=111 |isbn=978-0-8032-5637-8 |quote=In three days 72 Jews were murdered and 443 others injured. The chief perpetrators of these murders were soldiers and officers of the so-called Blue Army, set up in France in 1917 by General Jozef Haller (1893–1960) and lawless civilians}}</ref><ref name="Strauss">{{cite book |author-link=Herbert A. Strauss |first=Herbert Arthur |last=Strauss |year=1993 |title=Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39 |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOFkWX8EC4cC&pg=PA1048 |page=1048 |isbn=978-3-11-013715-6}}</ref><ref name="frontier">{{cite book |last1=Gilman |first1=Sander L. |first2=Milton |last2=Shain |title=Jewries at the Frontier: Accommodation, Identity, Conflict |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OH1BXkbeI6gC |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OH1BXkbeI6gC&pg=PA39 39] |isbn=978-0-252-06792-1 |quote=After the end of the fighting and as a result of the Polish victory, some of the Polish soldiers and the civilian population started a pogrom against the Jewish inhabitants. Polish soldiers maintained that the Jews had sympathized with the Ukrainian position during the conflicts}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Marsha L. |last=Rozenblit |year=2001 |title=Reconstructing a National Identity: The Jews of Habsburg Austria during World War I |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SHhosKV6yFwC&pg=PA137 |page=137 |isbn=978-0-19-535066-1 |quote=The largest pogrom occurred in Lemberg [''= Lwow'']. Polish soldiers led an attack on the Jewish quarter of the city on November 21–23, 1918 that claimed 73 Jewish lives.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Zvi Y. |last=Gitelman |year=2003 |title=The Emergence of Modern Jewish Politics: Bundism and Zionism in Eastern Europe |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jXNbzsp0XY8C&pg=PA58 |page=58 |isbn=978-0-8229-4188-0 |quote=In November 1918, Polish soldiers who had taken Lwow (Lviv) from the Ukrainians killed more than seventy Jews in a pogrom there, burning synagogues, destroying Jewish property, and leaving hundreds of Jewish families homeless.}}</ref> The following year, pogroms were reported by the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' in several cities in the newly established [[Second Polish Republic]].<ref name="Jewish Poland and its Red Reign of Terror" />

=== Pogroms in Europe and the Americas before World War II ===

==== Argentina 1919 ====

In 1919, a pogrom occurred in [[Argentina]], during the [[Tragic Week (Argentina)|Tragic Week]].<ref name="bookrags" /> It had an added element, as it was called to attack Jews and [[Catalans]] indiscriminately. The reasons are not clear, especially considering that, in the case of [[Buenos Aires]], the Catalan colony, established mainly in the neighborhood of Montserrat, came from the foundation of the city, but could have been the result of the influence of [[Spanish nationalism]], which at the time described Catalans as a Semitic ethnicity.<ref name=":02">{{cite book|last=Llaudó Avila |first=Eduard |date=2021 |edition=7a |publisher=Parcir |isbn=978-84-18849-10-7 |location=Manresa |title=Racisme i supremacisme polítics a l'Espanya contemporània |trans-title=Racism and political supremacism in contemporary Spain |language=ca}}</ref>

==== Britain and Ireland ====
[[File:Adana massacre in Le Petit Journal (1909).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Adana massacre|massacre of Armenians]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] in the city of [[Adana]], [[Ottoman Empire]], April 1909]]

In the early 20th century, pogroms broke out elsewhere in the world as well. In 1904 in [[Ireland]], the [[Limerick boycott]] caused several Jewish families to leave the town. During the 1911 [[History of the Jews in Wales#Modern period|Tredegar riot]] in [[Wales]], Jewish homes and businesses were looted and burned over a period of a week, before the [[British Army]] was called in by the then [[Home Secretary]] [[Winston Churchill]], who described the riot as a "pogrom".<ref name="bbc" />

In the north of [[Ireland]] during the early 1920s, violent riots which were aimed at the expulsion of a religious group took place. In 1920, [[Lisburn]] and [[Belfast]] saw violence related to the [[Irish War of Independence]] and [[partition of Ireland]]. On 21 July 1920 in Belfast, Protestant [[Ulster loyalism|Loyalists]] marched on the Harland and Wolff shipyards and forced over 11,000 Catholic and left-wing Protestant workers from their jobs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hopkinson |first=Michael |year=2004 |title=The Irish War of Independence |publisher=Gill and Macmillan |page=155 |isbn=978-0-7171-3741-1}}</ref> The sectarian rioting that followed resulted in about 20 deaths in just three days.<ref>{{cite book |last=Parkinson |first=Alan F |year=2004 |title=Belfast's Unholy War |publisher=Four Courts Press |page=317 |isbn=978-1-85182-792-3}}</ref> These sectarian actions are often referred to as the [[Belfast Pogrom]]. In Lisburn, County Antrim, on 23–25 August 1920 Protestant loyalist crowds looted and burned practically every Catholic business in the town and attacked Catholic homes. About 1,000 people, a third of the town's Catholics, fled Lisburn.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lisburnmuseum.com/virtual-museum/swanzy-riots/ |title=The Swanzy Riots, 1920 |date=2018 |publisher=Irish Linen Centre & Lisburn Museum |access-date=26 December 2021}}</ref> By the end of the first six months of 1922, hundreds of people had been killed in sectarian violence in newly formed [[Northern Ireland]]. On a per capita basis, four Roman Catholics were killed for every Protestant.<ref>{{cite book |first=Thorne |last=Kathleen |year=2014 |title=Echoes of Their Footsteps, The Irish Civil War 1922–1924 |publisher=Generation Organization |location=Newberg, OR |page=6 |isbn=978-0-692-24513-2}}</ref>

In the worst incident of anti-Jewish violence in Britain during the interwar period, the "Pogrom of Mile End", that occurred in 1936, 200 [[British Union of Fascists|Blackshirt]] youths ran amok in [[Stepney]] in the East End of London, smashing the windows of Jewish shops and homes and throwing an elderly man and young girl through a window. Though less serious, attacks on Jews were also reported in Manchester and Leeds in the north of England.<ref>{{cite news |first=Robert |last=Philpot |title=The true history behind London's much-lauded anti-fascist Battle of Cable Street |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |date=15 September 2018 |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/the-true-history-behind-londons-much-lauded-anti-fascist-battle-of-cable-street/ |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref>

=== Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe ===
{{Main|The Holocaust}}
[[File:פוגרום יאשי 1.JPG|thumb|left|[[Iași pogrom]] in [[Romania]], June 1941]]

The first pogrom in [[Nazi Germany]] was the ''[[Kristallnacht]]'', often called {{Lang|de|Pogromnacht}}, in which at least 91 Jews were killed, a further 30,000 arrested and incarcerated in [[Nazi concentration camps]],<ref name="Atlantic" /> over 1,000 synagogues burned, and over 7,000 Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged.<ref name="Berenbaum2005p49" /><ref name="Gilbert30" />

During [[World War II]], [[Einsatzgruppen|Nazi German death squads]] encouraged local populations in [[German-occupied Europe]] to commit pogroms against Jews. Brand new battalions of ''[[Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz]]'' (trained by [[Sicherheitsdienst|SD]] agents) were mobilized from among the German minorities.<ref name="Browning">{{cite book |last=Browning |first=Christopher R. |author-link=Christopher Browning |orig-date=1992 |year=1998 |chapter=Arrival in Poland |title=Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |url=http://hampshirehigh.com/exchange2012/docs/BROWNING-Ordinary%20Men.%20Reserve%20Police%20Battalion%20101%20and%20the%20Final%20Solution%20in%20Poland%20(1992).pdf |access-date=1 May 2013 |pages=51, 98, 109, 124 |url-status=live |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019043400/http://hampshirehigh.com/exchange2012/docs/BROWNING-Ordinary%20Men.%20Reserve%20Police%20Battalion%20101%20and%20the%20Final%20Solution%20in%20Poland%20(1992).pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Meier |first=Anna |title=Die Intelligenzaktion: Die Vernichtung der polnischen Oberschicht im Gau Danzig-Westpreußen |language=de |trans-title=The intelligence operation: The destruction of the Polish upper class in the Danzig-West Prussia district |publisher=VDM Verlag |isbn=978-3-639-04721-9}}</ref>

A large number of pogroms occurred during [[the Holocaust]] at the hands of non-Germans.<ref name="Fischel 1998 p41">{{cite book |author-link=Jack Fischel |last=Fischel |first=Jack |year=1998 |title=The Holocaust |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing]] |page=41 |isbn=978-0-313-29879-0}}</ref> Perhaps the deadliest of these Holocaust-era pogroms was the [[Iași pogrom]] in [[Romania]], perpetrated by [[Ion Antonescu]], in which as many as 13,266 [[Jew]]s were killed by [[Romania]]n citizens, police and military officials.<ref name="yadvashem" />

On 1–2 June 1941, in the two-day [[Farhud]] pogrom in [[Iraq]], perpetrated by [[Rashid Ali al-Kaylani|Rashid Ali]], [[Al-Muthanna Club#Yunis al-Sabawi|Yunis al-Sabawi]], and the [[Futuwa|al-Futuwa]] youth, "rioters murdered between 150 and 180 Jews, injured 600 others, and raped an undetermined number of women. They also looted some 1,500 stores and homes".<ref name="ushmm" /><ref name="telegraph" /> Also, 300–400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Kaplan |first=Robert D. |title=In Defense of Empire |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |date=April 2014 |pages=13–15 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/04/in-defense-of-empire/358645/ |url-access=limited}}</ref>

[[File:Lviv pogrom (June - July 1941).jpg|thumb|upright|Jewish woman chased by men and youth armed with clubs during the [[Lviv pogroms]], July 1941]]

In June–July 1941, encouraged by the ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'' in the city of Lviv the [[Ukrainian People's Militia]] perpetrated [[Lviv pogroms (1941)|two citywide pogroms]] in which around 6,000 [[Polish Jews]] were murdered,<ref name="ucsb" /> in retribution for alleged collaboration with the Soviet [[NKVD]]. In [[Lithuania]], some local police led by [[Algirdas Klimaitis]] and [[Lithuanian partisans (1941)|Lithuanian partisans]]{{snd}}consisting of [[Lithuanian Activist Front|LAF]] units reinforced by 3,600 deserters from the 29th Lithuanian Territorial Corps of the [[Red Army]]<ref name="google4" /> promulgated anti-Jewish [[Kaunas pogrom|pogroms in Kaunas]] along with occupying [[Nazi]]s. On 25–26 June 1941, about 3,800 Jews were killed and [[synagogues]] and Jewish settlements burned.<ref name="Holocaust Revealed" />

During the [[Jedwabne pogrom]] of July 1941, ethnic [[Polish people|Poles]] burned at least 340 Jews in a barn ([[Institute of National Remembrance]]) in the presence of Nazi German ''[[Ordnungspolizei#Police Battalions|Ordnungspolizei]]''. The role of the German ''[[Einsatzgruppe B]]'' remains the subject of debate.<ref name="ipn" /><ref name="ipn5" /><ref name="Zimmerman67" /><ref name="google6" /><ref name="Rossino" /><ref name="destruction" />

==== Europe after World War II ====
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2024}}

After the end of [[World War II]], a series of violent antisemitic incidents occurred against returning Jews throughout [[Europe]], particularly in the Soviet-occupied East where Nazi propagandists had extensively promoted the notion of a [[Judeo-Bolshevism|Jewish-Communist conspiracy]] (see [[Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946]] and [[Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946]]).{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}} Anti-Jewish riots also [[The Sergeants affair#Reactions in Britain|took place in Britain]] in 1947.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trilling |first=Daniel |date=2012-05-23 |title=Britain's last anti-Jewish riots |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/long-reads/2012/05/britains-last-anti-jewish-riots |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=New Statesman |language=en-US}}</ref>