Editing Pepper spray (section)

==Effects==
[[File:MCMAP1.jpg|thumb|[[United States Marine Corps|US Marines]] training after being exposed to pepper spray]]

Pepper spray is an [[Inflammation|inflammatory]] agent. It inflames the mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, throat and lungs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ozytive.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/sp1.gif|title=Top 10 Deadliest Weapons|date=June 2013|website=ozytive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906205125/http://www.ozytive.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/sp1.gif|archive-date=2013-09-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

It causes immediate closing of the eyes, difficulty breathing, runny nose, and coughing.<ref name="Effects Of Pepper Spray">{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotpepperspray.com/effects-of-pepper-spray.html|title=Effects Of Pepper Spray|publisher=Redhotpepperspray.com|access-date=2011-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217201857/http://www.redhotpepperspray.com/effects-of-pepper-spray.html|archive-date=2011-12-17|url-status=live}}</ref> The duration of its effects depends on the strength of the spray; the average full effect lasts from 20 to 90 minutes, but eye irritation and redness can last for up to 24 hours.<ref>{{Cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206161128/http://www.ozytive.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/sp1.gif |url=http://www.ozytive.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/sp1.gif |url-status=dead |title=Top 10 Deadliest Weapons |archive-date=December 6, 2017 |website=ozytive.com|access-date=April 29, 2020}}</ref>

The ''Journal of Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science'' published a study that concluded that single exposure of the eye to OC is harmless, but repeated exposure can result in long-lasting changes in [[cornea]]l sensitivity. They found no lasting decrease in [[visual acuity]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/41/8/2138|title=Effects of Oleoresin Capsicum Pepper Spray on Human Corneal Morphology and Sensitivity - Vesaluoma et al. 41 (8): 2138 - Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science|journal=Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science|date=July 2000|volume=41|issue=8|pages=2138–2147|publisher=Iovs.org|access-date=2011-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615060808/http://www.iovs.org/content/41/8/2138.full|archive-date=2013-06-15|url-status=live|last1=Vesaluoma|first1=Minna|last2=Müller|first2=Linda|last3=Gallar|first3=Juana|last4=Lambiase|first4=Alessandro|last5=Moilanen|first5=Jukka|last6=Hack|first6=Tapani|last7=Belmonte|first7=Carlos|last8=Tervo|first8=Timo}}</ref>

The European Parliament Scientific and Technological Options Assessment (STOA) published in 1998 "An Appraisal of Technologies of Political Control"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/stoa/2000/168394/DG-4-STOA_ET(2000)168394_EN(PAR02).pdf |title=CROWD CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES (An appraisal of technologies for political control) |publisher=European Parliament, Directorate General for Research |page=v-vi |date=June 2000 |access-date=2011-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106041118/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/stoa/2000/168394/DG-4-STOA_ET(2000)168394_EN(PAR02).pdf |archive-date=2012-01-06 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The STOA appraisal states:

::"Past experience has shown that to rely on manufacturers unsubstantiated claims about the absence of hazards is unwise. In the US, companies making crowd control weapons, (e.g. pepper-gas manufacturer Zarc International), have put their technical data in the public domain without loss of profitability."

:and:

::"Research on chemical irritants should be published in open scientific journals before authorization for any usage is permitted and that the safety criteria for such chemicals should be treated as if they were drugs rather than riot control agents;"

For those taking drugs, or those subjected to restraining techniques that restrict the breathing passages, there is a risk of death. In 1995, the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reported at least 61 deaths associated with police use of pepper spray since 1990 in the USA.<ref>''Los Angeles Times'' June 18, 1995</ref> The [[American Civil Liberties Union]] (ACLU) documented 27 people in police custody who died after exposure to pepper spray in California since 1993.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/98447918/Pepper-Spray-Update-More-Fatalities-More-Questions|title=Pepper Spray Update: More Fatalities, More Questions {{pipe}} United States Environmental Protection Agency {{pipe}} American Government|website=Scribd}}</ref><ref name="ACLU_1995">"Pepper spray's lethal legacy" in ''[[Ottawa Citizen]]''. October 22, 1998, p. A1.</ref> However, the ACLU report counts all deaths occurring within hours of exposure to pepper spray regardless of prior interaction, taser use, or if drugs are involved. In all 27 cases listed by the ACLU, the coroners' report listed other factors as the primary cause of death; in a few cases the use of pepper spray may have been a contributing factor.

The US Army performed studies in 1993 at [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], and a UNC study in 2000 stated that the compound in peppers, capsaicin, is mildly mutagenic, and 10% of mice exposed to it developed cancer. Where the study also found many beneficial effects of capsaicin, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration released statements declaring exposure of employees to OC is an unnecessary health risk. As of 1999, it was in use by more than 2,000 public safety agencies.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Smith CG, Stopford W|title=Health hazards of pepper spray| journal=N C Med J |volume=60 |issue=5 |pages=268–74 |year=1999 |pmid=10495655}} Archived at [https://web.archive.org/web/20000817004624/http://www.ncmedicaljournal.com/Smith-OK.htm web.archive.org]</ref>

The head of the FBI's Less-Than-Lethal Weapons Program at the time of the 1991 study, Special Agent Thomas W. W. Ward, was fired by the FBI and was sentenced to two months in prison for receiving payments from a pepper-gas manufacturer while conducting and authoring the FBI study that eventually approved pepper spray for FBI use.<ref>"Former F.B.I. Agent Is Sentenced to Prison", ''[[The New York Times]]''. May 20, 1996, p. B8.</ref><ref>"Ex-FBI Agent Pleads Guilty in Conflict-of-Interest Case", ''[[The Washington Post]]''. February 13, 1996, p. A12.</ref>  Prosecutors said that from December 1989 through 1990, Ward received about $5,000 a month for a total of $57,500, from Luckey Police Products, a Fort Lauderdale, Florida-based company that was a major producer and supplier of pepper spray. The payments were paid through a Florida company owned by Ward's wife.<ref>"Pepper spray study is tainted", ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]''. May 20, 1996, p. B8.</ref>[[File:Pepper spray Demonstration.jpg|thumb|Pepper spray demonstration|left]]Direct close-range spray can cause more serious eye irritation by attacking the cornea with a concentrated stream of liquid (the so-called "hydraulic needle" effect). Some brands have addressed this problem by means of an elliptically cone-shaped spray pattern.

Pepper spray has been associated with [[positional asphyxiation]] of individuals in police custody. There is much debate over the actual cause of death in these cases. There have been few controlled clinical studies of the human health effects of pepper spray marketed for police use, and those studies are contradictory. Some studies have found no harmful effects beyond the effects described above.<ref>Reay DT. Forensic pathology, part 1: death in custody. Clinics in Lab Med 1998;18:19–20; Watson WA, Stremel KR, and Westdorp EJ. Oleoresin capsicum (cap-stun) toxicity from aerosol exposures. Ann Pharmacotherapy 1996;30:733–5.</ref>  Due to these studies and deaths, many law enforcement agencies have moved to include policies and training to prevent positional deaths.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.policemag.com/524139/how-to-prevent-positional-asphyxia|title=How To Prevent Positional Asphyxia|first=Lawrence E.|last=Heiskell|date=9 September 2019|website=www.policemag.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/posasph.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020630/https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/posasph.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Positional Asphyxia—Sudden Death|date=June 1995|archive-date=2016-12-21|work=National Institute of Justice}}</ref>  However, there are some scientific studies that argue the positional asphyxiation claim is a myth due to pinpoint pressure on a person. The study by two universities stressed that no pressure should be applied to the neck area. They concluded that the person's own weight is not enough to stop their breathing with the rest of their body supported.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forcescience.org/2019/01/new-study-more-evidence-against-the-myth-of-restraint-asphyxia/|title=New Study: More Evidence Against the Myth of "Restraint Asphyxia"|first=Chuck|last=Remsberg|date=January 8, 2019}}</ref>

===Acute response===
For individuals not previously exposed to OC effects, the general feelings after being sprayed can be best likened to being "set alight". The initial reaction, should the spray be directed at the face, is the involuntary closing of the eyes, an instant sensation of the restriction of the airways and the general feeling of sudden and intense searing pain about the face, nose, and throat. This is due to irritation of mucous membranes. Many people experience fear and are disoriented due to sudden restriction of vision even though it is temporary.  There is associated shortness of breath, although studies performed with asthmatics have not produced any asthma attacks in those individuals, and monitoring is still needed for the individuals after exposure.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/181655.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060719142738/https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/181655.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Oleoresin Capsicum: Pepper Spray as a Force Alternative|date=March 1994|archive-date=2006-07-19|work=National Institute of Justice}}</ref> Police are trained to repeatedly instruct targets to breathe normally if they complain of difficulty, as the shock of the exposure can generate considerable panic as opposed to actual physical symptoms.