Editing Old Norse (section)

== Phonology ==

=== Vowels ===
Old Norse vowel phonemes mostly come in pairs of long and short. The [[Old Norse orthography#Normalized spelling|standardized orthography]] marks the long vowels with an acute accent. In medieval manuscripts, it is often unmarked but sometimes marked with an accent or through [[gemination]].
[[File:Jackson speaking Old Norse.webm|thumb|A person speaking Old Norse]]
Old Norse had nasalized versions of all ten vowel places.<ref name="CleasbyA" group="cv">{{harvnb|Cleasby|Vigfússon|1874|loc= p.1, "A"}}</ref>{{obsolete source|date=June 2020}} These occurred as allophones of the vowels before nasal consonants and in places where a nasal had followed it in an older form of the word, before it was absorbed into a neighboring sound. If the nasal was absorbed by a stressed vowel, it would also lengthen the vowel. This nasalization also occurred in the other Germanic languages, but were not retained long. They were noted in the [[First Grammatical Treatise]], and otherwise might have remained unknown. The First Grammarian marked these with a dot above the letter.<ref name="CleasbyA" group="cv" /> This notation did not catch on, and would soon be obsolete. Nasal and oral vowels probably merged around the 11th century in most of Old East Norse.{{sfn|Bandle|2005|loc = Ch. XVII §202 "The typological development of the Nordic languages I: Phonology" (H. Sandøy) : ''Old East Nordic'', pp. 1856, 1859}} However, the distinction still holds in [[Dalecarlian dialects]].{{sfn|Bandle|2005|loc = Ch. XVII §202 "The typological development of the Nordic languages I: Phonology" (H. Sandøy) : ''Old West Nordic'', p. 1859}} The dots in the following vowel table separate the oral from [[Nasal vowel|nasal]] phonemes.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Generic vowel system {{Circa|9th}}–12th centuries
|-
!  rowspan=2 |
!! colspan=4 scope="col" | Front vowels
!! colspan=4 scope="col" | Back vowels
|-
!  colspan=2 scope="col" | Unrounded
!! colspan=2 scope="col" | Rounded
!  colspan=2 scope="col" | Unrounded
!! colspan=2 scope="col" | Rounded
|-
! scope="row" | Close
| {{IPA link|i}} • {{IPA|ĩ}} || {{IPA|iː}} • {{IPA|ĩː}} || {{IPA link|y}} • {{IPA|ỹ}} || {{IPA|yː}} • {{IPA|ỹː}} || || || {{IPA link|u}} • {{IPA|ũ}} || {{IPA|uː}} • {{IPA|ũː}}
|-
! scope="row" | Mid
| {{IPA link|e}} • {{IPA|ẽ}} || {{IPA|eː}} • {{IPA|ẽː}} || {{IPA link|ø}} • {{IPA|ø̃}} || {{IPA|øː}} • {{IPA|ø̃ː}} || || || {{IPA link|o}} • {{IPA|õ}} || {{IPA|oː}} • {{IPA|õː}}
|-
! scope="row" | Open, open-mid
| {{IPA link|ɛ}} • {{IPA|ɛ̃}} || {{IPA|ɛː}} • {{IPA|ɛ̃ː}} || {{IPA link|œ}} • {{IPA|œ̃}} || || {{IPA link|a}} • {{IPA|ã}} || {{IPA|aː}} • {{IPA|ãː}} || {{IPA link|ɔ}} • {{IPA|ɔ̃}} || {{IPA link|ɔː}} • {{IPA|ɔ̃ː}}
|}

Note: The open or open-mid vowels may be transcribed differently:
* {{IPA|/æ/}} = {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
* {{IPA|/ɒ/}} = {{IPA|/ɔ/}}
* {{IPA|/ɑ/}} = {{IPA|/a/}}

Sometime around the 13th century, {{IPA|/ɔ/}} (spelled {{angbr|ǫ}}) merged with {{IPA|/ø/}} or {{IPA|/o/}} in most dialects except [[#Old Danish|Old Danish]], and Icelandic where {{IPA|/ɔ/}} ({{lang|non|ǫ}}) merged with {{IPA|/ø/}}. This can be determined by their distinction within the 12th-century [[First Grammatical Treatise]] but not within the early 13th-century [[Prose Edda]]. The nasal vowels, also noted in the First Grammatical Treatise, are assumed to have been lost in most dialects by this time (but notably they are retained in [[Elfdalian]] and other dialects of [[Ovansiljan]]). See [[#Old Icelandic|Old Icelandic]] for the mergers of {{IPA|/øː/}} (spelled {{angbr|œ}}) with {{IPA|/ɛː/}} (spelled {{angbr|æ}}) and {{IPA|/ɛ/}} (spelled {{angbr|ę}}) with {{IPA|/e/}} (spelled {{angbr|e}}).

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Generic vowel system {{Circa|13th}}–14th centuries
|-
!  rowspan=2 |
!! colspan=4 scope="col" | Front vowels
!! colspan=4 scope="col" | Back vowels
|-
!  colspan=2 scope="col" | Unrounded
!! colspan=2 scope="col" | Rounded
!  colspan=2 scope="col" | Unrounded
!! colspan=2 scope="col" | Rounded
|-
! scope="row" | High
| {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|iː}} || {{IPA|y}} || {{IPA|yː}} || || || {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|uː}}
|-
! scope="row" | Mid
| {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|eː}} || {{IPA|ø}} || {{IPA|øː}} || || || {{IPA|o}} || {{IPA|oː}}
|-
! scope="row" | Low/Low-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || {{IPA|ɛː}} || || || {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|aː}} || || &nbsp;
|}

Old Norse had three [[diphthong]] phonemes: {{IPA|/ɛi/}}, {{IPA|/ɔu/}}, {{IPA|/øy ~ ɛy/}} (spelled {{angbr|ei}}, {{angbr|au}}, {{angbr|ey}} respectively). In East Norse these would [[monophthongization|monophthongize]] and merge with {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/øː/}}, whereas in West Norse and its descendants the diphthongs remained.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ History of Old Norse and Old Icelandic vowels
!  scope="col" | Proto-Germanic
!! scope="col" | Northwest Germanic
!! scope="col" width=100px | Primitive Old West Norse
!! scope="col" | Old Icelandic<br />(1st Grammarian)
!! scope="col" width=100px | Later Old Icelandic
!! scope="col" | Example (Old Norse)
|-
| {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|a}} {{angbr|a}} || {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|a}} || {{lang|non|land}} "land" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*landą}}
|-
| {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|a}} (+i-mut) || {{IPA|ɛ}} {{angbr|ę}} || {{IPA|e}} {{angbr|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{lang|non|menn}} "men" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*manniz}}
|-
| {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|a}} (+u/w-mut) || {{IPA|ɔ}} {{angbr|ǫ}} || {{IPA|ɔ}} || {{IPA|ø}} {{angbr|ö}} || {{lang|non|lǫnd}} "lands" < {{lang|mis|*landu}} < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*landō}};<br /> {{lang|non|sǫngr}} "song" < {{lang|non|sǫngr}} < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*sangwaz}}
|-
| {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|a}} (+i-mut +w-mut) || {{IPA|œ}} {{angbr|ø₂}} || {{IPA|ø}} || {{IPA|ø}} {{angbr|ö}} || {{lang|non|gøra}} "to make" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*garwijaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|æː}} {{angbr|ē}} || {{IPA|aː}} || {{IPA|aː}} {{angbr|á}} || {{IPA|aː}} || {{IPA|aː}} || {{lang|non|láta}} "to let" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*lētaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|æː}} {{angbr|ē}} || {{IPA|aː}} (+i-mut) || {{IPA|ɛː}} {{angbr|æ}} || {{IPA|ɛː}} || {{IPA|ɛː}} || {{lang|non|mæla}} "to speak" < {{lang|mis|*mālijan}} < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*mēlijaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|æː}} {{angbr|ē}}|| {{IPA|aː}} (+u-mut) || {{IPA|ɔː}} {{angbr|ǫ́}} || {{IPA|ɔː}} || {{IPA|aː}} {{angbr|á}} || {{lang|non|mǫ́l}} "meals" < '{{lang|mis|*mālu}} < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*mēlō}}
|-
| {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} {{angbr|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} || {{lang|non|sex}} "six" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*seks}};<br />{{lang|non|bresta}} "to burst" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*brestaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} (+u/w-mut) || {{IPA|ø}} {{angbr|ø₁}} || {{IPA|ø}} || {{IPA|ø}} {{angbr|ö}} || {{lang|non|tøgr}} "ten" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*teguz}}
|-
| {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} (broken) || {{IPA|ea}} {{angbr|ea}} || {{IPA|ja}} {{angbr|ja}} || {{IPA|ja}} || {{lang|non|gjalda}} "to repay" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*geldaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|e}} (broken +u/w-mut) || {{IPA|eo/io}} {{angbr|eo}}/{{angbr|io}} || {{IPA|jo}} > {{IPA|jɔ}} {{angbr|jǫ}} || {{IPA|jø}} {{angbr|jö}} || {{lang|non|skjǫldr}} "shield" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*skelduz}}
|-
| {{IPA|eː}} {{angbr|ē₂}}|| {{IPA|eː}} || {{IPA|eː}} {{angbr|é}} || {{IPA|eː}} || {{IPA|eː}} || {{lang|non|lét}} "let (past tense)" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*lē₂t}}
|-
| {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|i}} {{angbr|i}} || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|i}} || {{lang|non|mikill}} "great" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*mikilaz}}
|-
| {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|i}} (+w-mut) || {{IPA|y}} {{angbr|y}} || {{IPA|y}} || {{IPA|y(ː)}} || {{lang|non|slyngva}} "to sling" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*slingwaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|iː}} || {{IPA|iː}} || {{IPA|iː}} {{angbr|í}} || {{IPA|iː}} || {{IPA|iː}} || {{lang|non|líta}} "to look" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*lītaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|oː}} {{angbr|ó}} || {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|oː}} || {{lang|non|fór}} "went" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*fōr}};<br /> {{lang|non|mót}} "meeting" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*mōtą}}
|-
| {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|oː}} (+i-mut) || {{IPA|øː}} {{angbr|œ}} || {{IPA|øː}} || {{IPA|ɛː}} {{angbr|æ}} || {{lang|non|mœðr}} "mothers" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*mōdriz}}
|-
| {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|u}} {{angbr|u}} || {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|u}} || {{lang|non|una}} "to be content" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*unaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|u}} (+i-mut) || {{IPA|y}} {{angbr|y}} || {{IPA|y}} || {{IPA|y}} || {{lang|non|kyn}} "race" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*kunją}}
|-
| {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|u}} (+a-mut) || {{IPA|o}} {{angbr|o}} || {{IPA|o}} || {{IPA|o}} || {{lang|non|fogl}}/{{lang|non|fugl}} "bird" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*fuglaz}};<br />{{lang|non|morginn}} "morning" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*murganaz}}
|-
| {{IPA|uː}} || {{IPA|uː}} || {{IPA|uː}} {{angbr|ú}} || {{IPA|uː}} || {{IPA|uː}} || {{lang|non|drúpa}} "to droop" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*drūpaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|uː}} || {{IPA|uː}} (+i-mut) || {{IPA|yː}} {{angbr|ý}} || {{IPA|yː}} || {{IPA|yː}} || {{lang|non|mýss}} "mice" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|mūsiz}}
|-
| {{IPA|ai}} || {{IPA|ai}} || {{IPA|ai}} > {{IPA|ɛi}} {{angbr|ei}} || {{IPA|ɛi}} || {{IPA|ɛi}} || {{lang|non|bein}}, [[Old Gutnish|Gut.]] {{lang|mis|bain}} "bone" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*bainą}}
|-
| {{IPA|ai}} || {{IPA|ai}} (+w-mut) || {{IPA|øy}} {{angbr|ey}}, {{angbr|øy}} || {{IPA|øy}} {{angbr|ey}}<ref name="FromOldNordic" /> || {{IPA|ɛy}} || {{lang|non|kveykva}} "to kindle" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*kwaikwaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|au}} || {{IPA|au}} || {{IPA|au}} > {{IPA|ɔu}} {{angbr|au}} || {{IPA|ɔu}} {{angbr|au}} || {{IPA|au}} || {{lang|non|lauss}} "loose" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*lausaz}}
|-
| {{IPA|au}} || {{IPA|au}} (+i-mut) || {{IPA|øy}} {{angbr|ey}}, {{angbr|øy}} || {{IPA|øy}} {{angbr|ey}} || {{IPA|ɛy}} || {{lang|non|leysa}} "to loosen" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*lausijaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|eu}} || {{IPA|eu}} || {{IPA|eu}} {{angbr|eu}} || {{IPA|juː}} {{angbr|jú}} || {{IPA|juː}} || {{lang|non|djúpr}} "deep" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*deupaz}}
|-
| {{IPA|eu}} || {{IPA|eu}} (+dental) || {{IPA|eo}} {{angbr|eo}} || {{IPA|joː}} {{angbr|jó}} || {{IPA|juː}} || {{lang|non|bjóða}}/{{lang|non|bjúða}} "to offer" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*beudaną}}
|-
| {{IPA|Ṽ}} || {{IPA|Ṽ}} || {{IPA|Ṽ}} || {{IPA|Ṽ}} || {{IPA|V}} || {{lang|non|komȧ}} < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*kwemaną}} "to come, arrive";<br /> [[#Old West Norse|OWN]] {{lang|non|vėtr/vėttr}} < {{lang|non|vintr}} < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*wintruz}} "winter"
|-
| {{IPA|Ṽː}} || {{IPA|Ṽː}} || {{IPA|Ṽː}} || {{IPA|Ṽː}} || {{IPA|Vː}} || {{lang|non|hȧ́r}} "shark" < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*hanhaz}}; <br /> {{lang|non|ȯ́rar}} "our" (pl.) < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*unseraz}};<br /> {{lang|non|ø̇́rȧ}} "younger" (acc. neut. wk.<ref name="CleasbyA" group="cv" />) < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*junhizą}}{{Sfn|Haugen|1950|pp=4–64}}
|}

=== Consonants ===
Old Norse has six plosive phonemes, {{IPA|/p/}} being rare word-initially and {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/b/}} pronounced as voiced fricative [[allophone]]s between vowels except in compound words (e.g. {{lang|non|veðrabati}}), already in the [[Proto-Germanic language]] (e.g. {{lang|gem-x-proto|*b}} {{IPA|*[β]}} > {{IPA|[v]}} between vowels). The {{IPA|/ɡ/}} phoneme was pronounced as {{IPA|[ɡ]}} after an {{IPA|/n/}} or another {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and as {{IPA|[k]}} before {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/t/}}. Some accounts have it a voiced velar fricative {{IPA|[ɣ]}} in all cases, and others have that realisation only in the middle of words and between vowels (with it otherwise being realised {{IPA|[ɡ]}}).<ref>{{citation| first = Orrin W. |last = Robinson |author-link=Orrin W. Robinson (philologist) | title = Old English and Its Closest Relatives| page =83| year = 1993}}</ref><ref name="Sweet">{{harvnb|Sweet|1895|p=5}}</ref>{{Clarify|date=March 2010}}<!-- reason=Scope of source in regards to {{IPA|/k/}} before {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}; In general or in OIC? Date? --> The Old East Norse {{IPA|/ʀ/}} was an [[apical consonant]], with its precise position unknown; it is reconstructed as a palatal [[sibilant]].{{sfn|Bandle|2005|loc = Ch. XVII §202 "The typological development of the Nordic languages I: Phonology" (H. Sandøy) : ''Common Nordic'', p.1855}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schalin |first1=Johan |title=Preliterary Scandinavian Sound Change Viewed From the East |journal=Nordica Helsingiensia |date=2018 |volume=54 |pages=146–147}}</ref> It descended from Proto-Germanic {{IPA|/z/}} and eventually developed into {{IPA|/r/}}, as had already occurred in Old West Norse.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! &nbsp;
! Labial
! Dental
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Labiovelar
! Glottal
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | Plosive
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|b}}}}
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|t̪|t}} {{IPA link|d̪|d}}}}
|
|
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|k}} {{IPA link|ɡ}}}}
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | Nasal
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|m}}}}
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|n̪|n}}}}
|
|
| {{IPA|({{IPA link|ŋ}})}}
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | Fricative
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|f}} ({{IPA link|v}})}}
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|θ}} ({{IPA link|ð}})}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA|ʀ}}{{efn|name=rfromz|Reconstructed as {{IPA|[{{IPA link|ɹ̝}}]}} when part of the stem of a word with a voiceless allophone {{IPA|[{{IPA link|ɹ̝̊}}]}} word-finally when not part of the stem.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}<!--Applies to voiceless allophone-->}}
| {{IPA|({{IPA link|ɣ}})}}
|
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|h}}}}
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | Trill
|
|
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|r}}}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | Approximant
|
|
|
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|j}}}}
|
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|w}}}}
|
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | Lateral approximant
|
|
| {{IPA|{{IPA link|l}}}}
|
|
|
|
|}
{{notelist}}

The consonant digraphs {{angbr|hl}}, {{angbr|hr}}, and {{angbr|hn}} occurred word-initially. It is unclear whether they were sequences of two consonants (with the first element realised as {{IPA|/h/}} or perhaps {{IPA|/x/}}) or as single voiceless sonorants {{IPA|/l̥/}}, {{IPA|/r̥/}} and {{IPA|/n̥/}} respectively. In Old Norwegian, Old Danish and later Old Swedish, the groups {{angbr|hl}}, {{angbr|hr}}, and {{angbr|hn}} were reduced to plain {{angbr|l}}, {{angbr|r}}, {{angbr|n}}, which suggests that they had most likely already been pronounced as voiceless sonorants by Old Norse times.

The pronunciation of {{angbr|hv}} is unclear, but it may have been {{IPA|/xʷ/}} (the Proto-Germanic pronunciation), {{IPA|/hʷ/}} or the similar phoneme {{IPA|/ʍ/}}. Unlike the three other digraphs, it was retained much longer in all dialects. Without ever developing into a voiceless sonorant in Icelandic, it instead underwent [[fortition]] to a plosive {{IPA|/kv/}}, which suggests that instead of being a voiceless sonorant, it retained a stronger frication. In some Icelandic dialects it is still preserved as {{IPA|/xʷ/}} or {{IPA|/xv/}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Íslenskar mállýskur |trans-title=Icelandic dialects |url=https://ait.arnastofnun.is/grein.php?id=706 |access-date=25 April 2025 |website=Málsgreinar |language=is}}</ref>

=== Accent ===
{{See also|Stød|Norwegian phonology#Accent|Swedish phonology#Prosody|l1=Danish stød|l2=Norwegian tonal stress|l3=Swedish tonal stress}}
{{Expand section|Dating, etc.|date=April 2010}}

Primary [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] in Old Norse falls on the [[word stem]], so that {{lang|non|hyrjar}} would be pronounced {{IPA|/ˈhyr.jar/}}. In compound words, secondary stress falls on the second stem (e.g. {{lang|non|lærisveinn}}, {{IPA|/ˈlɛːɾ.iˌswɛinː/}}).<ref name="ProseReader">{{harvnb|Vigfússon|Powell|1879|loc= Ch. 1}}</ref>