Editing Novartis (section)

===Sandoz===
{{Main|Sandoz}}
[[File:Sandoz-Logo.svg|thumb|right|The Sandoz brand exists today as a subsidiary of Novartis.]]
Sandoz is the [[generic drug]]s division of Novartis. Before the 1996 merger with Ciba-Geigy to form Novartis, Sandoz Pharmaceuticals (Sandoz AG) was a [[pharmaceutical]] company headquartered in [[Basel]], Switzerland (as was Ciba-Geigy), and was best known for developing drugs such as [[Sandimmune]] for [[organ transplantation]], the [[antipsychotic]] [[Clozaril]], [[Mellaril]] Tablets and [[Serentil]] Tablets for treating [[psychiatric disorders]], and [[Cafergot]] Tablets and [[Torecan]] Suppositories for treating [[migraine headaches]].

The ''Chemiefirma Kern und Sandoz'' ("Kern and Sandoz Chemistry Firm") was founded in 1886 by Alfred Kern (1850–1893) and Edouard Sandoz (1853–1928). The first dyes manufactured by them were [[alizarin]]blue and [[auramine]]. After Kern's death, the partnership became the corporation ''Chemische Fabrik vormals Sandoz'' in 1895. The company began producing the fever-reducing drug [[antipyrin]] in the same year. In 1899, the company began producing the sugar substitute [[saccharin]]. Further pharmaceutical research began in 1917 under [[Arthur Stoll]] (1887–1971), who is the founder of Sandoz's pharmaceutical department in 1917.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-12-15 |title=Company history |url=http://www.novartis.com/about-novartis/company-history/index.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230203847/http://www.novartis.com/about-novartis/company-history/index.shtml |archive-date=30 December 2010 |access-date=2012-01-16 |publisher=Novartis.com |df=dmy}}</ref> In 1918, Arthur Stoll isolated [[ergotamine]] from [[ergot]]; the substance was eventually used to treat migraine and headaches and was introduced under the trade name Gynergen in 1921.

Between the World Wars, Gynergen (1921) and Calcium-Sandoz (1929) were brought to market. Sandoz also produced chemicals for textiles, paper, and [[leather]], beginning in 1929. In 1939, the company began producing agricultural chemicals.

The [[psychedelic drug|psychedelic]] effects of [[lysergic acid diethylamide]] (LSD) were discovered at the Sandoz laboratories in 1943 by [[Arthur Stoll]] and [[Albert Hofmann]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Albert Hofmann, 102, Invented LSD - The New York Sun |url=http://www.nysun.com/obituaries/albert-hofmann-102-invented-lsd/75591/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020203430/http://www.nysun.com/obituaries/albert-hofmann-102-invented-lsd/75591/ |archive-date=2013-10-20 |access-date=2013-10-23 |publisher=Nysun.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Patent US2438259 - D-lysergic acid diethyl amide |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2438259 |website=google.com |access-date=11 November 2016 |archive-date=9 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609005436/http://www.google.com/patents/US2438259 |url-status=live }}</ref> Sandoz began clinical trials and marketed the substance, from 1947 through the mid-1960s, under the name ''Delysid'' as a [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] drug, thought useful for treating a wide variety of [[Mental disorder|mental ailments]], ranging from [[alcoholism]] to [[sexual deviancy]]. Sandoz suggested in its marketing literature that psychiatrists take LSD themselves,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Albert Hofmann: LSD - My Problem Child: Use of LSD in Psychiatry |url=http://www.flashback.se/archive/my_problem_child/chapter4.html#2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060707201805/http://www.flashback.se/archive/my_problem_child/chapter4.html |archive-date=2006-07-07 |access-date=2012-01-16 |publisher=Flashback.se}}</ref> to gain a better subjective understanding of the [[Schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] experience, and many did exactly that and so did other scientific researchers. The Sandoz product received mass publicity as early as 1954, in a [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] magazine feature.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 June 1954 |title=Medicine: Dream Stuff |magazine=Time |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,860898,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827000524/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C860898%2C00.html |archive-date=27 August 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Research on LSD peaked in the 1950s and early 1960s. The [[CIA]] purchased quantities of LSD from Sandoz for use in its illegal human experimentation program known as [[MKUltra]].<ref>{{cite web |title=CIA considered big LSD purchase |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/08/05/archives/cia-considered-big-lsd-purchase-agency-data-disclose-1953-idea-to.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=25 May 2022 |date=5 August 1976 |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524210752/https://www.nytimes.com/1976/08/05/archives/cia-considered-big-lsd-purchase-agency-data-disclose-1953-idea-to.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Sandoz withdrew the drug from the market in 1965. The drug became a cultural novelty of the 1960s after psychologist [[Timothy Leary]] at [[Harvard University]] began to promote its use for recreational and spiritual experiences among the general public.

Sandoz opened its first foreign offices in 1964. In 1967, Sandoz merged with [[Wander AG]] (known for [[Ovomaltine]] and [[Isostar]]). Sandoz acquired the companies [[Delmark]], [[Wasabröd]] (a [[Sweden|Swedish]] manufacturer of [[crisp bread]]), and [[Gerber Products Company]] (a [[baby food]] company). On 1 November 1986, a fire broke out in a production plant storage room, which led to the [[Sandoz chemical spill]] and a large amount of [[pesticide]] being released into the upper [[Rhine]] river. This exposure killed many fish and other aquatic life. In 1995, Sandoz spun off its [[specialty chemicals]] business to form [[Clariant]]. In 1997, Clariant merged with the specialty chemicals business that was spun off from [[Hoechst AG]] in Germany.<ref>Anna Bálint: ''Clariant clareant. The beginnings of a specialty chemicals company'', Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main/New York 2012, {{ISBN|978-3-593-39374-2}}.</ref>