Editing Neoclassicism (section)

==Architecture and the decorative arts==
{{Main|Neoclassical architecture|Louis XVI style|Directoire style|Empire style|Adam style|Biedermeier}}
[[File:Paris 10e Hôtel Gouthière 360.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|left|[[Hôtel Gouthière]], Rue Pierre-Bullet no. 6, Paris, possibly by J. Métivier, 1780<ref>{{cite book|last1=Larbodière|first1=Jean-Marc|title=L'Architecture de Paris des Origins à Aujourd'hui|date=2015|publisher=Massin|isbn=978-2-7072-0915-3|page=106|url=|language=fr}}</ref>]] 
[[File:Etrurisches Zimmer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|"The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] room", from [[Potsdam]], Germany, {{circa}}1840, illustration by [[Friedrich Wilhelm Klose]]]]

Neoclassical art was traditional and new, historical and modern, conservative and progressive all at the same time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Palmer|first=Alisson Lee|title=Historical dictionary of neoclassical art and architecture.|pages=1}}</ref>

Neoclassicism first gained influence in Britain and France, through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann, and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as [[Gustavian era|Sweden]], [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]. At first, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in the interiors for [[Catherine the Great]]'s lover, Count [[Grigory Orlov]], designed by an Italian architect with a team of Italian ''[[stucco|stuccadori]]'': only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the [[bas-relief]] overdoors hint of Neoclassicism; the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo.

A second Neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied (through the medium of [[engraving]]s) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the [[First French Empire|Napoleonic Empire]]. In France, the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the "[[Louis XVI style]]", and the second in the styles called "[[Directoire style|Directoire]]" and [[Empire style|Empire]]. The Rococo style remained popular in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.{{according to whom|date=March 2013}}

In the decorative arts, Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture made in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; in [[Biedermeier]] furniture made in Austria; in [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]]'s museums in Berlin, Sir [[John Soane]]'s [[Bank of England]] in London and the newly built "[[United States Capitol]]" in Washington, D.C.; and in [[Josiah Wedgwood]]'s [[bas relief]]s and "black basaltes" [[vase]]s. The style was international; Scots architect [[Charles Cameron (architect)|Charles Cameron]] created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine the Great, in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Indoors, Neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]]. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s,<ref name="Gontar">Gontar</ref> with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of ''[[Le Antichità di Ercolano]]'' (''The Antiquities of Herculaneum''). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the [[Baroque]], or the most "Roman" rooms of [[William Kent]] were based on [[basilica]] and [[temple]] exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: [[pediment]]ed window frames turned into [[gilding|gilded]] mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary.

Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low [[frieze]]-like relief or painted in monotones ''[[Camaïeu|en camaïeu]]'' ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or ''[[bucrania]]'' or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colors. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the ''[[Goût grec]]'' ("Greek style"), not a court style; when [[Louis XVI]] acceded to the throne in 1774, [[Marie Antoinette]], his fashion-loving Queen, brought the Louis XVI style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".<ref>Honour, 110–111, 110 quoted</ref>
[[File:Château de Malmaison - Appartement de Joséphine 003.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Château de Malmaison]], 1800, room for the [[Joséphine de Beauharnais|Empress Joséphine]], on the cusp between [[Directoire style]] and [[Empire style]]]]

From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism, the [[Greek Revival]]. At the same time the [[Empire style]] was a more grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of [[Napoleon]] in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois [[Biedermeier]] style in the German-speaking lands, [[Federal architecture|Federal style]] in the United States,<ref name="Gontar"/> the [[Regency style]] in Britain, and the ''Napoleon style'' in Sweden. According to the art historian [[Hugh Honour]] "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neoclassical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".<ref>Honour, 171–184, 171 quoted</ref> An earlier phase of the style was called the [[Adam style]] in Great Britain.

Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in [[academic art]] through the 19th century and beyond—a constant antithesis to [[Romanticism]] or [[Gothic revival]]s —, although from the late 19th century on it had often been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles.{{who|date=March 2013}} The centres of several European cities, notably Saint Petersburg and [[Munich]], came to look much like museums of Neoclassical architecture.

Gothic revival architecture (often linked with the Romantic cultural movement), a style originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century, contrasted Neoclassicism. Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized by Greek and Roman-influenced styles, geometric lines and order, Gothic revival architecture placed an emphasis on medieval-looking buildings, often made to have a rustic, "romantic" appearance.

=== France ===
==== Louis XVI style (1760–1789) ====
{{Main|Louis XVI style}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
École Militaire Paris Pavillon central depuis la cour d'honneur.jpg|Central pavilion of the [[École militaire]], Paris, 1752, by [[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]]{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=11}}

Pantheon 1, Paris May 11, 2013.jpg|[[Panthéon]], Paris, by [[Jacques-Germain Soufflot]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Rondelet]], 1758–1790{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=276}}

L'Hôtel de la Marine (Paris) (51346237676).jpg|[[Hôtel de la Marine]], Paris, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761-1770{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=13}}

West facade of Petit Trianon 002.JPG|Façade of the [[Petit Trianon]], Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=273}}

The Petit Trianon (23935245609).jpg|Staircase of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=273}}

Salon de Compagnie - Petit Trianon (23935437909).jpg|Interior of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=273}}

Commode de la comtesse du Barry (Louvre, OA 11293).jpg|Commode of [[Madame du Barry]]; by [[Martin Carlin]] (attribution); 1772; oak base veneered with pearwood, rosewood and [[amaranth]], soft-paste [[Sèvres porcelain]], bronze gilt, white marble; 87 x 119&nbsp;cm; [[Louvre]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jacquemart|first1=Albert|title=Decorative Art|date=2012|publisher=Parkstone|isbn=978-1-84484-899-7|page=65|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Hôtel du Châtelet JP2011 façade cour.jpg|[[Hôtel du Châtelet]], Paris, unknown architect, 1776<ref>{{cite book|last1=Larbodière|first1=Jean-Marc|title=L'Architecture de Paris des Origins à Aujourd'hui|date=2015|publisher=Massin|isbn=978-2-7072-0915-3|page=105|url=|language=fr}}</ref>

Bordeaux Grand Théâtre R03.jpg|Stairway of the [[Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux|Grand Theater of Bordeaux]], Bordeaux, France, by [[Victor Louis]], 1777-1780{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=17}}

Jean-henri riesener, angoliera, 1785 ca.jpg|Parisian corner cabinet; by [[Jean Henri Riesener]]; 1780–1790; oak, mahogany, marble, and ormolu mounts; 94.3 × 81.3 × 55.9&nbsp;cm; [[Art Institute of Chicago]], US<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.artic.edu/artworks/96539/corner-cabinet |title=Corner Cabinet - The Art Institute of Chicago}}</ref>

Grand vase à fond beau bleu (Louvre, OA 6627) 2 (cropped and fixed angles).jpg|Large vase; 1783; hard porcelain and [[ormolu|gilt bronze]]; height: 2 m, diameter: 0.90 m; Louvre

Cabinet dore Marie-Antoinette Versailles.jpg|Cabinet Doré of [[Marie Antoinette]] at the [[Palace of Versailles]], Versailles, France, by the Rousseau brothers, 1783{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=61}}

Secrétaire à cylindre de Marie-Antoinette (Louvre, OA 5226).jpg|Roll-top desk of Marie-Antoinette; by [[Jean-Henri Riesener]]; 1784; oak and pine frame, [[sycamore]], amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze gilt; 103.6 x 113.4&nbsp;cm; Louvre<ref name="Decorative Art">{{cite book|last1=Jacquemart|first1=Albert|title=Decorative Art|date=2012|publisher=Parkstone|isbn=978-1-84484-899-7|page=61|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Table à écrire à pupitre de Marie-Antoinette (Louvre, OA 5509).jpg|Writing table of Marie Antoinette; by [[Adam Weisweiler]]; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2&nbsp;cm; Louvre<ref name="Decorative Art"/>

Ewer MET DT236853.jpg|Ewer; 1784–1785; silver; height: 32.9&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Folding stool (pliant) (one of a pair) MET DP113122.jpg|Folding stool (pliant); 1786; carved and painted beechwood, covered in pink silk; 46.4 × 68.6 × 51.4&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Pair of vases MET DP168509.jpg|Pair of vases; 1789; hard-paste porcelain, gilt bronze, marble; height (each): 23&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis XVI's Salon des Jeux at Saint Cloud MET DP113960.jpg|Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis XVI's Salon des Jeux at [[Château de Saint-Cloud|Saint-Cloud]]; 1788; carved and gilded walnut, gold brocaded silk (not original); overall: 100 × 74.9 × 65.1&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>

It marks the transition from [[Rococo]] to Classicism. Unlike the [[Louis XIV style|Classicism of Louis XIV]], which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis XVI style represents them as realistic and natural as possible, i.e. laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the same, and so on. One of the main decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very bright, including white, light grey, bright blue, pink, yellow, very light lilac, and gold. Excesses of ornamentation are avoided.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|pages=200, 201 & 202|language=ro}}</ref> The return to antiquity is synonymous with above all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, save for the occasional half circle or oval. Interior decor also honored this taste for rigor, with the result that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion. Ornament was used to mediate this severity, but it never interfered with basic lines and always was disposed symmetrically around a central axis. Even so, ''ébénistes'' often canted fore-angles to avoid excessive rigidity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sylvie|first1=Chadenet|title=French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco|date=2001|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|page=71|language=en}}</ref>

The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired by [[Ancient history|antiquity]], the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the style: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks, [[guilloché]], double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small motifs ([[Rosette (design)|rosettes]], beads, oves), [[Trophy of arms|trophy]] or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon, [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves, [[gadrooning]], interlace, [[meander (art)|meanders]], [[cornucopia]]s, [[mascaron (architecture)|mascarons]], Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and lion heads, [[Chimera (mythology)|chimeras]], and [[gryphon]]s. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are also heavily used: [[Fluting (architecture)|flutings]], [[pilaster]]s (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight), [[column]]s ([[engaged column|engaged]] and unengaged, sometimes replaced by [[caryatid|caryathids]]), [[volute]] [[corbel]]s, [[triglyph]]s with [[gutta]]e (in [[relief]] and [[trompe-l'œil]]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sylvie|first1=Chadenet|title=French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco|date=2001|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|page=72|language=en}}</ref>

==== Directoire style (1789–1804) ====
{{Main|Directoire style}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Paris 10e Hôtel Gouthière 60675 (fixed angles).jpg|Panel with a [[grotesque]] in the [[Hôtel Gouthière]], Paris, unknown architect, unknown date

P1240239 Paris VI rue Jacob n46 rwk 2.jpg|Rue Jacob no. 46, Paris, unknown architect, unknown date

Corniquet - horloge à heures duodécimales et décimales.jpg|Astronomical clock; by [[Philippe-Jacques Corniquet]]; {{circa}}1794; gilt bronze and enamel face; unknown dimensions; [[Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://madparis.fr/~period/article-fiche-local4114en.html|title=ASTRONOMICAL CLOCK|website=madparis.fr|access-date=23 May 2021}}</ref>

Fan MET DP-314-001.jpg|Fan; by [[Charles Percier]], [[Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine]] and [[Antoine Denis Chaudet]]; {{circa}}1797-1799; paper, wood, and bone; 23.5 x 43.8&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)

Salon de madame Récamier - Bergère (Louvre, OA 11385).jpg|Armchair of the salon of [[Juliette Récamier]]; attributed to [[Jacob Frères]]; {{circa}}1798; various types of wood; 84.5 x 62.2 x 62&nbsp;cm; [[Louvre]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010116204|title=Bergère du salon de Madame Récamier (OA 11384 à 11391), d'une paire avec OA 11386|website=collections.louvre.fr|date=1799 |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref>
</gallery>

====Empire style (1804–1815) ====
{{Main|Empire style}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Coffeepot MET DP103166.jpg|Coffeepot; 1797–1809; silver gilt; height: 33.3&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City

Château de Malmaison, France (48029730202).jpg|[[Empress Joséphine]]'s Bedroom in [[Château de Malmaison]], Rueil-Malmaison, France, by [[Charles Percier]] and [[Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine]], 1800-1802{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=275}}

Washstand (athénienne or lavabo) MET DP106594.jpg|Washstand (athénienne or lavabo); 1800–1814; legs, base and shelf of yew wood, [[ormolu|gilt-bronze]] mounts, iron plate beneath shelf; height: 92.4&nbsp;cm, width: 49.5&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Palais Bourbon, Paris 7e, NW View 140402 1.jpg|Portico of the [[Palais Bourbon]], Paris, by [[Bernard Poyet]], 1806-1808{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=111}}

Madeleine Paris.jpg|[[La Madeleine, Paris]], by [[Pierre-Alexandre Vignon]], 1807-1842{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=111}}

Pair of green vases, painted by Jean Georget, mounts by Pierre-Philippe Thomire, 1 of 2, Sèvres porcelain, 1809, soft-paste porcelain - Wadsworth Atheneum - Hartford, CT - DSC05493.jpg|Vase; 1809; hard-paste porcelain and gilded bronze handles; height: 74.9&nbsp;cm, diameter: 35.6&nbsp;cm; [[Wadsworth Atheneum]], Hartford, Connecticut, US<ref>{{cite book|last1=Odile|first1=Nouvel-Kammerer|title=Symbols of Power • Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style • 1800-1815|date=2007|isbn=978-0-8109-9345-7|page=209|publisher=Abrams |language=en}}</ref>

Coin cabinet MET DP103176.jpg|Egyptian Revival coin cabinet; by [[François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter]]; 1809–1819; [[mahogany]] (probably [[Swietenia mahagoni]]), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Clock Thomire Louvre OA9511.jpg|Clock with [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]; {{circa|1810}}; gilded bronze and patina; height: 90&nbsp;cm; Louvre

Austria-03324 - Cradle of Napoleon's Son (32936041295).jpg|King of Rome's Cradle; by [[Pierre-Paul Prud'hon]], [[Henri Victor Roguier]], [[Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot]] and [[Pierre-Philippe Thomire]]; 1811; wood, silver gilt, [[mother-of-pearl]], sheets of copper covered with velvet, silk and tulle, decorated with silver and gold thread; height: 216&nbsp;cm; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]], Vienna, Austria<ref>{{cite book|last1=Odile|first1=Nouvel-Kammerer|title=Symbols of Power • Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style • 1800-1815|date=2007|isbn=978-0-8109-9345-7|page=32|publisher=Abrams |language=en}}</ref>

Carpet MET DP360538.jpg|Carpet; 1814–1830; 309.9 × 246.4&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>

Neoclassicism was representative for the new French society that exited the [[French Revolution|revolution]], setting the tone in all life fields, including art. The [[Jacquard machine]] was invented during this period (which revolutionised the entire sewing system, manual until then). One of the dominant colours was red, decorated with [[ormolu|gilt bronze]]. Bright colours were also used, including white, cream, violet, brown, blue, dark red, with little ornaments of gilt bronze. Interior architecture included wood panels decorated with gilt [[relief]]s (on a white background or a coloured one). Motifs were placed geometrically. The walls were covered in [[stucco]]s, wallpaper fabrics. [[Fireplace mantel]]s were made of white marble, having [[caryatid]]s at their corners, or other elements: [[obelisk]]s, [[sphinx]]es, winged lions, and so on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, including [[French Empire mantel clock|mantel clocks]]. The doors consisted of simple rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central figure. Empire fabrics are damasks with a blue or brown background, satins with a green, pink or purple background, velvets of the same colors, brooches broached with gold or silver, and cotton fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for curtains, for covering certain furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather was also used for upholstery).<ref>{{cite book |last1= Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|pages=217, 219, 220 & 221|language=ro}}</ref>

All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the [[Louis XIV style]]. Generally, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail; when they do not, the individual motifs themselves are entirely [[symmetrical]] in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Like [[Louis XIV]], [[Napoleon]] had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initials [[I]] (for ''Imperator'') and [[N]] (for ''Napoleon''), which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of [[Nike (mythology)|Victory]] bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged [[putto|putti]], [[mascaron (architecture)|mascarons]] of [[Apollo]], [[Hermes]] and the [[Gorgon]], swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, winged [[Chimera (mythology)|chimeras]], [[sphinx]]es, [[Bucranium|bucrania]], sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy [[rinceaux]], [[rosette (design)|rosettes]], palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and flat [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves, [[palmette]]s, [[cornucopia]]s, beads, [[amphora]]s, tripods, imbricated disks, [[caduceus]]es of [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], vases, helmets, burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and especially [[lyre]]s). Despite their antique derivation, the [[fluting (architecture)|fluting]] and [[triglyph]]s so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned. [[Egyptian Revival decorative arts|Egyptian Revival]] motifs are especially common at the beginning of the period: [[Scarab (artifact)|scarabs]], lotus [[capital (architecture)|capitals]], winged disks, obelisks, [[pyramid]]s, figures wearing [[nemes]]es, [[caryatid]]s ''en gaine'' supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sylvie|first1=Chadenet|title=French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco|date=2001|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|page=103 & 105|language=en}}</ref>

=== Germany ===
{{main|Biedermeier#|Gründerzeit}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="160px">
File:Berlin - 0266 - 16052015 - Brandenburger Tor.jpg|[[Brandenburg Gate]] in Berlin (1788–1791) by [[Carl Gotthard Langhans]]
File:Marktplatz Karlsruhe 20220705 145159-2.jpg|[[Karlsruhe Pyramid|Pyramid]] (1823–1825) and City Church (1807–1816) in [[Karlsruhe]] by [[Friedrich Weinbrenner]]
File:150418 Konzerthaus Berlin Gendarmenmarkt.jpg|[[Konzerthaus Berlin]] in Berlin (1818–1821) by [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]]
File:Exterior views of the Altes Museum Berlin.jpg|[[Altes Museum]] in Berlin (1825–1830) by Karl Friedrich Schinkel
File:Glyptothek in München in 2013.jpg|[[Glyptothek]] in Munich (1816–1830) by [[Leo von Klenze]]
File:Walhalla wie Parthenon zu Ehren bedeutender Personen - erbaut 1842 - König Ludwig I - Foto Wolfgang Pehlemann DSCN2430.jpg|[[Walhalla (memorial)|Walhalla]] (1830–1842) by Leo von Klenze
File:Propyläen München.jpg|[[Propylaea (Munich)]] (1854–1862) by Leo von Klenze
File:AlteNationalgalerie 1a.jpg|[[Alte Nationalgalerie]] in Berlin (1862–1876) by [[Friedrich August Stüler]] and [[Heinrich Strack]]
</gallery>

Neoclassical architecture became widespread as a symbol of wealth and power in Germany, mostly in what was then [[Prussia]]. [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]] built many prominent buildings in this style, including the [[Altes Museum]] in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center.

His [[Bauakademie]] is considered one of the forerunners of modern architecture due to its hithertofore relatively streamlined [[façade]] of the building

=== Italy ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Palazzo Grassi Canal Grande Venezia.jpg|alt=|[[Palazzo Grassi]], on the Grand Canal in [[Venice]], by [[Giorgio Massari]], 1748–1772

File:Milano - Teatro la Scala.JPG|alt=|[[La Scala]] Opera House, [[Milan]], by [[Giuseppe Piermarini]], completed in 1778

File:8859 - Milano - P.za Belgiojoso - Palazzo Belgiojoso - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto - 14-Apr-2007.jpg|alt=|[[Palazzo Belgioioso]], Milan, by [[Giuseppe Piermarini]], 1781

File:Milano - Villa Reale - facciata sud - 06.jpg|alt=|[[Villa Belgiojoso Bonaparte]], Milan, by [[Leopoldo Pollack]], 1790–1796

File:Napoli 2010 -Piazza del Plebiscito- by-RaBoe 056.jpg|alt=|[[Piazza del Plebiscito]], Naples, unknown architect, 1809–1846

File:Roma Piazza del Popolo due.jpg|alt=|[[Piazza del Popolo]] (Rome), redesigned between 1811 and 1822, by [[Giuseppe Valadier]]

Education of the Infant Bacchus MET DP150925.jpg|Education of the Infant Bacchus; by [[Niccolò Amastini]]; first half 19th century; onyx with gold frame; overall (in setting): 6.5 x 4.8&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City
</gallery>
From the second half of the 18th century through the 19th century, Italy went through a great deal of socio-economic changes, several foreign invasions and the turbulent Risorgimento, which resulted in [[Italian unification]] in 1861. Thus, Italian art went through a series of minor and major changes in style.

Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the general period known as Neoclassicism and lasted more than the other national variants of neoclassicism. It developed in opposition to the Baroque style around {{circa|1750}} and lasted until {{circa|1850|lk=no}}. Neoclassicism began around the period of the rediscovery of Pompeii and spread all over Europe as a generation of art students returned to their countries from the [[Grand Tour]] in Italy with rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals. It first centred in Rome where artists such as [[Antonio Canova]] and Jacques-Louis David were active in the second half of the 18th century, before moving to Paris. Painters of [[Veduta|Vedute]], like [[Canaletto]] and [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]], also enjoyed a huge success during the Grand Tour. Neoclassical architecture was inspired by the Renaissance works of [[Andrea Palladio]] and saw in [[Luigi Vanvitelli]] the main interpreters of the style.

Classicist literature had a great impact on the Risorgimento movement: the main figures of the period include [[Vittorio Alfieri]], [[Giuseppe Parini]], [[Vincenzo Monti]] and [[Ugo Foscolo]], [[Giacomo Leopardi]] and [[Alessandro Manzoni]] (nephew of [[Cesare Beccaria]]), who were also influenced by the French Enlightenment and German Romanticism. The virtuoso violinist [[Paganini]] and the operas of [[Rossini]], [[Donnizetti]], [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]] and, later, [[Verdi]] dominated the scene in Italian classical and romantic music.

The art of [[Francesco Hayez]] and especially that of the [[Macchiaioli]] represented a break with the classical school, which came to an end as Italy unified (see Italian modern and contemporary art). Neoclassicism was the last Italian-born style, after the Renaissance and Baroque, to spread to all Western Art.

===Romania===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160px">

Biserica rotunda Letcani 04.JPG|Round church of Saint Demetrius, [[Lețcani, Iași|Lețcani]], unknown architect, 1795<ref name="Clasicismul în Arta Românească">{{cite book|last1=Ispir|first1=Mihai|title=Clasicismul în Arta Românească|date=1984|publisher=Editura Meridiane|isbn=|page=|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Palatul Știrbei, Bucuresti.jpg|Știrbei Palace (Calea Victoriei no. 107), Bucharest, by [[Michel Sanjouand]], {{circa}}1835; with a new level with [[caryatid]]s added in 1882 by [[Joseph Hartmann]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Florea|first1=Vasile|title=Arta Românească de la Origini până în Prezent|date=2016|publisher=Litera|isbn=978-606-33-1053-9|pages=296, 297|url=|language=}}</ref>

The University Building of Bucharest, circa 1869, photo by Franz Duschek.jpg|The old building of the [[University of Bucharest]], designed by [[Alexandru Orăscu]] and decorated with sculptures by [[Karl Storck]], 1857–1864, bombarded in April or May 1944 during WW2 and partially destroyed, partially rebuilt during the late 1960s<ref name="Oltean 2009 p113">{{cite book|last1=Oltean|first1=Radu|title=București 550 de ani de la prima atestare documentată 1459-2009|date=2009|publisher=ArCuB|isbn=978-973-0-07036-1|page=113|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Ateneo Rumano, Bucarest, Rumanía, 2016-05-29, DD 73.jpg|[[Romanian Athenaeum]] on [[Calea Victoriei]], Bucharest, by Albert Galleron, 1886–1895{{sfn|Celac|Carabela|Marcu-Lapadat|2017|p=65}}

3-5 Strada Icoanei, Bucharest (24).jpg|Upper part of a tiled stove in the principals' house of the [[Școala Centrală National College|Central Girls' School]], Bucharest, unknown designer, 1890
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During the 19th century, the predominant style in [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]], later the [[Kingdom of Romania]], was [[Classicist architecture|Classicism]] which lasted for a long time, until the 20th century, although it coexisted in some short periods with other styles. Foreign architects and engineers were invited here since the first decade of the 19th century. Most of the architects that built during the beginning of the century were foreigners because Romanians did not have yet the instruction needed for designing buildings that were very different compared to the Romanian tradition. Usually using Classicism, they started building together with Romanian artisans, usually prepared in foreign schools or academies. Romanian architects studied in Western European schools as well. One example is [[Alexandru Orăscu]], one of the representatives of Neoclassicism in Romania.

Classicism manifested both in religious and secular architecture. A good example of secular architecture is the Știrbei Palace on [[Calea Victoriei]] ([[Bucharest]]), built around the year 1835, after the plans of French architect [[Michel Sanjouand]]. It received a new level in 1882, designed by Austrian architect [[Joseph Hartmann]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Florea|first1=Vasile|title=Arta Românească de la Origini până în Prezent|date=2016|publisher=Litera|isbn=978-606-33-1053-9|pages=294, 296, 297|url=|language=}}</ref>{{sfn|Lăzărescu|Cristea|Lăzărescu|1972|p=67, 68}}

=== Ukraine ===
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File:Kherson gromads'ka biblioteka.jpg|Building of the former library, Kherson
File:Кропивницький вул. Дворцова, 17.jpg|Resttant "Prima", Kropyvnytskyi
File:Вул. Дворцова.jpg|Teatral'na street (earlier Dvortsova) Kropyvnytskyi
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In some Ukrainian cities, the rich architectural heritage of the times of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires has been preserved, reflecting the fact that the Ukrainian ethnic lands for most of history were under control of other states.
A vivid example is Teatralna atreet in the city of [[Kropyvnytskyi]], all buildings  of which were built in the 19th century in the neoclassical style by invited European architects.<ref>Кіровоградська римо-католицька парафія Святого Духа // Місто і люди. Єлисаветград — Кіровоград, 1754—2004. Ілюстрована енциклопедія., Кіровоград: , «Імекс-ЛТД», 2004, стор. 296—297</ref><ref>Місто і люди. Єлисаветград — Кіровоград, 1754—2004. Ілюстрована енциклопедія., Кіровоград: , «Імекс-ЛТД», 2004, стор.</ref>

=== Russia and the Soviet Union ===
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File:Дворец Шереметьева.jpg|[[Ostankino Palace]], Moscow, Russia, by [[Francesco Camporesi]], completed in 1798

Arkhangelskoe Estate Aug2012 buildings 03.jpg|[[Arkhangelskoye Estate]], Krasnogorsky District, Moscow Oblast, by [[Jacob Guerne]], unknown date
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In 1905–1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief but influential period of [[Russian neoclassical revival|Neoclassical revival]]; the trend began with recreation of Empire style of [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexandrine]] period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance, [[palladian architecture|Palladian]] and modernized, yet recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative peak before World War I, like [[Ivan Fomin]], [[Vladimir Shchuko]] and [[Ivan Zholtovsky]]. When the economy recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers continued working in primarily [[modernism (architecture)|modernist]] environment; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical canon, others (Fomin, Schuko, [[Ilya Golosov]]) developed their own modernized styles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1g5004bj&brand=eschol |title=The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture |publisher=Content.cdlib.org |access-date=2012-02-12}}</ref>

With the crackdown on architect's independence and official denial of modernism (1932), demonstrated by the international contest for the [[Palace of Soviets]], Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as one of the choices in [[Stalinist architecture]], although not the only choice. It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture of [[Boris Iofan]], bordering with contemporary [[Art Deco]] (Schuko); again, the purest examples of the style were produced by Zholtovsky school that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster for [[Constructivist architecture|constructivist]] leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools.

Neoclassicism was an easy choice for the [[Soviet Union]] since it did not rely on modern construction technologies ([[steel frame]] or [[reinforced concrete]]) and could be reproduced in traditional [[masonry]]. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other old masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict material [[rationing]]. Improvement of construction technology after World War II permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture of [[Palace of Culture and Science]], Warsaw and the [[Shanghai]] International Convention Centre) share little with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and office projects until 1955, when [[Nikita Khrushchev]] put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture.

===United Kingdom===
{{Main|Adam style|Wedgwood}}
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Kedleston Hall 20080730-06.jpg|[[Kedleston Hall]], Kedleston, Derbyshire, England, by [[Robert Adam]], 1760–1770{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=103}}

Osterley House The Dinning Room (22773780472).jpg|Eating Room, [[Osterley Park]], London, by Robert Adam, 1761{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=226}}

Syon House (33741948060).jpg|[[Syon House]], Middlesex, England, by Robert Adam, 1762{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=103}}

Osterley House, entrance hall.jpg|The Hall, Osterley Park, by Robert Adam, 1767{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=274}}

Carpet MET DP299026.jpg|Carpet; by Robert Adam; 1770–1780; knotted wool; 505.5 x 473.1&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City

Jasperware plaque by Wedgwood (c. 1776), Harris Museum.JPG|''Apotheosis of Virgil''; by [[John Flaxman]]; {{circa}}1776; jasperware; diameter: 41&nbsp;cm; [[Harris Museum]], Preston, Lancashire, UK<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=260|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Somerset House (42160916102).jpg|[[Somerset House]], London, by [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]], 1776-1801{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=104}}

File:Pair of urns and pedestals MET DP-14204-180.jpg|Urn on pedestal; {{circa}}1780 with latter additions; by Robert Adam; inlaid mahogany; height: 49.8&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Side table MET DP-14204-045.jpg|Side table with many [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leafs and two [[Bucranium|bucrania]]; by [[Robert Adam]]; {{circa}}1780 with later addition; mahogany; overall: 88.6 × 141.3 × 57.1&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Wedgwood Factory (British) - Covered Urn - 1951.301.2 - Cleveland Museum of Art.jpg|Covered Wedgwood urn; {{circa}}1800; jasper ware with relief decoration; overall: 19.7&nbsp;cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]], Cleveland, Ohio, US<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1951.301.2|title=Covered Urn - Cleveland Museum of Art| date=30 October 2018 |access-date=6 May 2022}}</ref>
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The Adam style was created by two brothers, [[Robert Adam|Adam]] and [[James Adam (architect)|James]], who published in 1777 a volume of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior decoration made after Robert Adam's drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and any other surface, are divided into big panels: rectangular, round, square, with [[stucco]]s and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used include [[festoon]]s, pearls, [[egg-and-dart]] bands, [[Medallion (architecture)|medallions]], and any other motifs used during the [[Classical antiquity]] (especially the [[Etruscan architecture|Etruscan]] ones). Decorative fittings such as urn-shaped stone vases, gilded silverware, lamps, and stauettes all have the same source of inspiration, classical antiquity. The Adam style emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leafs), or with a [[pediment]] above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a [[Venetian window]], with a big central mirror between two other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually decorated with festoons. The furniture in this style has a similar structure to [[Louis XVI furniture]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|pages=253, 255 & 256|language=ro}}</ref>

Besides the Adam style, when it comes to decorative arts, England is also known for the ceramic manufacturer [[Josiah Wedgwood]] (1730–1795), who established a pottery called Etruria. Wedgwood ware is made of a material called [[jasperware]], a hard and fine-grained type of [[stoneware]]. Wedgwood vases are usually decorated with reliefs in two colours, in most cases the figures being white and the background blue.

===United States===
{{Main|Federal style}}

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File:Maple Secretary LACMA 60.46.3a-b.jpg|Maple secretary; {{circa|1790}}; maple and brass; height: 242.57&nbsp;cm; [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]], US

Candlestand LACMA M.2006.51.13 (1 of 2).jpg|Candlestand; 1790–1800; mahogany, birch, and various inlays; 107 x 49.21 x 48.9&nbsp;cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Writing Desk LACMA M.2006.51.24a-b.jpg|Writing desk; 1790–1810; satinwood, mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine; 153.67 x 90.17 x 51.44&nbsp;cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

White House north and south sides.jpg|[[White House]], Washington, D.C., by [[James Hoban]], 1792-1829{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=112}}

US Capitol west side.JPG|[[United States Capitol|Capitol Building]], Washington, D.C., 1793–1863, by [[William Thornton]] and [[Thomas Ustick Walter]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=112}}

Armchair LACMA 54.141.2.jpg|Armchair; possibly by [[Ephraim Haines]]; 1805–1815; mahogany and cane; height: 84.77&nbsp;cm, width: 52.07&nbsp;cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Four-Column Pedestal Card Table with Pineapple Finial LACMA M.2006.51.29.jpg|Four-column pedestal card table with pineapple finial; 1815–1820; mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine woods; 74.93 x 92.71 x 46.67&nbsp;cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

University of Virginia Rotunda 2006.jpg|[[The Rotunda (University of Virginia)]], Charlottesville, Virginia, by [[Thomas Jefferson]], 1822-1826{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=31}}

SC State House at evening.jpg|[[South Carolina State House]], Columbia, South Carolina, by [[John Rudolph Niernsee]], 1855

File:Brevard-Rice House.jpg|Brevard-Rice House, [[Garden District, New Orleans]], by [[James Calrow]], 1857<ref>{{cite book|last1=Irving|first1=Mark|title=1001 BUILDINGS You Must See Before You Die|date=2019|publisher=Cassel Illustrated|isbn=978-1-78840-176-0|page=281|url=|language=en}}</ref>

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On the [[Americas|American continent]], architecture and interior decoration have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after the [[French Revolution]] some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins). The practical spirit and the material situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere. All the American furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimes [[Islamic art|Islamic]], [[Turkish art|Turkish]] or [[Asian art|Asian]], were made in conformity with the American norms, taste, and functional requirements. There have existed in the US a period of the [[Queen Anne style architecture#American Queen Anne|Queen Anne style]], and an [[Thomas Chippendale|Chippendale]] one. A style of its own, the Federal style, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced by Britannic taste. Under the impulse of Neoclassicism, architecture, interiors, and furniture have been created. The style, although it has numerous characteristics which differ from state to state, is unitary. The structures of architecture, interiors, and furniture are Classicist, and incorporate [[Baroque]] and [[Rococo]] influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents. [[Stucco]] or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Furniture tend to be decorated with floral [[marquetry]] and bronze or brass inlays (sometimes [[gilding|gilded]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1= Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|pages=269, 270, & 271|language=ro}}</ref>