Editing Names of China (section)

==== Qing ====
''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' appeared in a formal international legal document for the first time during the Qing dynasty in the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]], 1689. The term was then used in communications with other states and in treaties. The Manchu rulers [[Qing dynasty in Inner Asia|incorporated Inner Asian polities into their empire]], and [[Wei Yuan]], a statecraft scholar, distinguished the new territories from ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'', which he defined as the 17 provinces of "[[China proper]]" plus the Manchu homelands in the Northeast. By the late 19th century, the term had emerged as a common name for the whole country. The empire was sometimes referred to as Great Qing but increasingly as ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|pp=232–233}}</ref>

{{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}} is the [[Manchu language|Manchu]] name for China, with "Dulimbai" meaning "central" or "middle" and "Gurun" meaning "nation" or "state".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA117 Hauer 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170207/https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA117 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 117.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA80 Dvořák 1895] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170221/https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA80 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 80.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA102 Wu 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170211/https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA102 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 102.</ref> The historian Zhao Gang writes that "not long after the collapse of the Ming, China became the equivalent of Great Qing ({{Transliteration|zh|Da Qing}})—another official title of the Qing state," and "Qing and China became interchangeable official titles, and the latter often appeared as a substitute for the former in official documents."{{sfnb|Zhao|2006| p = 7}} The Qing dynasty referred to their realm as "''Dulimbai Gurun''" in Manchu. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing realm (including present-day [[Qing dynasty in Inner Asia|Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia]], Tibet, and other areas) with "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a [[multi-ethnic state]], rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas; both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China". Officials used "China" (though not exclusively) in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" {{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai gurun i bithe}} referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" ({{Zhi|t=中國人|p=Zhōngguórén}}; {{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai gurun i niyalma}}) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.{{sfnb|Zhao|2006|p = [https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf 4, 7–10, 12–14]}} Ming loyalist Han literati held to defining the old Ming borders as China and using "foreigner" to describe [[Ethnic minorities in China|minorities]] under Qing rule such as the Mongols and Tibetans, as part of their anti-Qing ideology.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/6928995/The_Literati_Rewriting_of_China_in_the_Qianlong-Jiaqing_Transition Mosca 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926130202/http://www.academia.edu/6928995/The_Literati_Rewriting_of_China_in_the_Qianlong-Jiaqing_Transition |date=2018-09-26 }}, p. 94.</ref>

[[File:滿蒙漢合璧教科書 (節錄).png|thumb|500px|Chapter ''China'' ({{zhi|t=中國}}) of "The Manchurian, Mongolian and Han Chinese Trilingual Textbook" ({{zhi|s=滿蒙漢三語合璧教科書}}) published during the Qing dynasty: ''"Our country China is located in [[East Asia]]... For 5000 years, culture flourished (in the land of China)... Since we are Chinese, how can we not love China."'']]
When the Qing [[Ten Great Campaigns#Three campaigns against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang (1755–1759)|conquered Dzungaria in 1759]], they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into {{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}} in a Manchu language memorial.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170150/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 77.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA83 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180322/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA83 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 83.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&dq=steppes+mountains+rivers+Dzungar+unified+with+china&pg=PA503 Elliott 2001] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180227/https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&dq=steppes+mountains+rivers+Dzungar+unified+with+china&pg=PA503 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 503.</ref> The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese, like the Tibetans, Inner, Eastern, and Oirat Mongols, together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family", united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family. The Qing used the phrase "{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Zhōngwài yījiā|labels=no}}" ({{Lang-zh|c={{linktext|中外|一家}}|s=|t=|labels=no|l=China and other [countries] as one family}}) or "{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Nèiwài yījiā|labels=no}}" ({{Lang-zh|c={{linktext|內外}}一家|s=|t=|labels=no|l=Interior and exterior as one family}}), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170150/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 |date=2023-04-11 }}, pp. 76-77.</ref> A Manchu-language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing "people of the Central Kingdom ({{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}})".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 Cassel 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170213/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 205.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 Cassel 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170218/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 205.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 Cassel 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180504/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 44.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 Cassel 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170226/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 44.</ref> In the Manchu official [[Tulisen]]'s Manchu language [[Narrative of the Chinese Embassy to the Khan of the Tourgouth Tartars|account of his meeting]] with the [[Kalmyk people|Torghut Mongol]] leader [[Ayuka Khan|Ayuki Khan]], it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" ({{Transliteration|mnc|dulimba-i gurun}}''/''{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=中國|labels=no|p=Zhōngguó}}) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA218 Perdue 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170151/https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA218 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 218.</ref>

The geography textbooks published in the late Qing period gave detailed descriptions of China's regional position and territorial space. They generally emphasized that China was a large country in Asia but not the center of the world. For example, the "Elementary Chinese Geography Textbook" ({{Zhi|t=蒙學中國地理教科書}}) published in 1905 described the boundaries of China's territory and neighboring countries as follows: "The western border of China is located in the center of Asia, bordering the (overseas) territories of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]. The terrain is humped, like a hat. So all mountains and rivers originate from here. To the east, it faces [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] across the [[East China Sea]]. To the south, it is adjacent to the [[South China Sea]], and borders [[French Indochina|French Annam]] and [[British rule in Burma|British Burma]]. To the southwest, it is separated from [[British Raj|British India]] by mountains. From the west to the north and the northeast, the three sides of China are all Russian territories. Only the southern border of the northeast is connected to [[Korean Empire|Korea]] across the [[Yalu River]]." It further stated that "There are about a dozen countries in Asia, but only China has a vast territory, a prosperous population, and dominates East Asia. It is a great and world-famous country."<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.sohu.com/a/127415152_488316 | title = 地理书写与国家认同：清末地理教科书中的民族主义话语 | website = [[Sohu]] | access-date = June 9, 2024}}</ref>

The Qing enacted the first [[Chinese nationality law]] in 1909, which defined a Chinese national ({{lang-zh|c=中國國籍|p=Zhōngguó Guójí|links=no}}) as any person born to a Chinese father. Children born to a Chinese mother inherited her nationality only if the father was [[statelessness|stateless]] or had unknown nationality status.<ref name="Shao5">{{cite journal |last=Shao |first=Dan |title=Chinese by Definition: Nationality Law, Jus Sanguinis, and State Succession, 1909–1980 |journal=Twentieth-Century China |year=2009 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=4–28 |doi=10.1353/tcc.0.0019 |s2cid=201771890}}</ref> These regulations were enacted in response to a 1907 statute passed in [[The Netherlands]] that retroactively treated all Chinese born in the [[Dutch East Indies]] as Dutch citizens. ''[[Jus sanguinis]]'' was chosen to define Chinese nationality so that the Qing could counter foreign claims on [[overseas Chinese]] populations and maintain the perpetual allegiance of its subjects living abroad through paternal lineage.<ref name="Shao5" /> A Chinese word called {{Transliteration|zh|xuètǒng}} ({{zhi|c=血統}}), which means "bloodline" as a literal translation, is used to explain the descent relationship that would characterize someone as being of Chinese descent and therefore eligible under the Qing laws and beyond, for Chinese citizenship.<ref name=Claytonp108>{{cite book |title=[[Sovereignty at the Edge: Macau & the Question of Chineseness]]|first=Cathryn H. |last=Clayton |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2alTUjb6SX8C&pg=PA108 108] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2010|isbn=978-0-674-03545-4 }}</ref>

[[Mark Elliott (historian)|Mark Elliott]] noted that it was under the Qing that "China" transformed into a definition of referring to lands where the "state claimed sovereignty" rather than only the [[Central Plains (China)|Central Plains]] area and its people by the end of the 18th century.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945?seq=36 Elliot 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194025/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945?seq=36 |date=2018-08-03 }}, p. 638.</ref>

Elena Barabantseva also noted that the Manchu referred to all subjects of the Qing empire regardless of ethnicity as "Chinese" ({{Zhi|t={{linktext|中國|之|人}}|p=Zhōngguó zhī rén|l=China's person}}), and used the term ({{Zhi|t=中國|p=Zhōngguó}}) as a synonym for the entire Qing empire while using {{Transliteration|zh|Hànrén}} ({{zhi|t={{linktext|漢人}}}}) to refer only to the core area of the empire, with the entire empire viewed as multiethnic.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=U3XFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT59 Barabantseva 2010], p. 20.</ref>

[[William T. Rowe]] wrote that the name "China" ({{zhi|t=中國|s=中華}}) was apparently understood to refer to the political realm of the [[Han Chinese]] during the [[Ming dynasty]], that this understanding persisted among the Han Chinese into the early Qing dynasty, and that the understanding was also shared by [[Aisin Gioro]] rulers before the [[Ming–Qing transition]]. The Qing, however, "came to refer to their more expansive empire not only as the Great Qing but also, nearly interchangeably, as China" within a few decades of this development. Instead of the earlier (Ming) idea of an ethnic Han Chinese state, this new Qing China was a "self-consciously multi-ethnic state". Han Chinese scholars had some time to adapt this, but by the 19th century, the notion of China as a [[multinational state]] with new, significantly extended borders had become the standard terminology for Han Chinese writers. Rowe noted that "these were the origins of the China we know today.". He added that while the early Qing rulers viewed themselves as multi-hatted emperors who ruled several nationalities "separately but simultaneously", by the mid-19th century, the Qing Empire had become part of a European-style community of sovereign states and entered into a series of treaties with the West, and such treaties and documents consistently referred to Qing rulers as the "[[Emperor of China]]" and his administration as the "Government of China".<ref>{{cite book | first = Rowe | last = Rowe | title = China's Last Empire – The Great Qing | year = 2010 | publisher = Harvard University Press | pages = 210–211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC |access-date=February 15, 2010| isbn = 978-0-674-05455-4 }}</ref>

[[Joseph W. Esherick]] noted that while the Qing Emperors governed frontier non-Han areas in a different, separate system under the [[Lifan Yuan|Lifanyuan]] and kept them separate from Han areas and administration, it was the Manchu Qing Emperors who expanded the definition of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' and made it "flexible" by using that term to refer to the entire Empire and using that term to other countries in diplomatic correspondence, while some Han Chinese subjects criticized their usage of the term and the Han literati [[Wei Yuan]] used ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' only to refer to the seventeen provinces of China and three manchurian provinces of the east, excluding other frontier areas.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|p= 232}}</ref> Due to the Qing usage of treaties clarifying the international borders of the Qing state, they were able to inculcate in the Chinese people a sense that China included areas such as Mongolia and Tibet by education reforms in geography, which made it clear where the borders of the Qing state were, even if the populace didn't understand how the Chinese identity included Tibetans and Mongolians or what the connotations of being Chinese were.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|p= 251}}</ref> The English version of the 1842 [[Treaty of Nanking]] refers to "His Majesty the Emperor of China" while the Chinese refers both to "The Great Qing Emperor" ({{Transliteration|zh|Da Qing Huangdi}}) and to ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as well. The 1858 [[Treaty of Tientsin]] contains similar language.<ref name="Zarrow" />

In the late 19th century, the reformer [[Liang Qichao]] argued in a famous passage that "our greatest shame is that our country has no name. The names that people ordinarily think of, such as Xia, Han, or Tang, are all the titles of bygone dynasties." He argued that the other countries of the world "all boast of their own state names, such as England and France, the only exception being the Central States",<ref>Liang quoted in {{harvp|Esherick|2006|p=235}}, from Liang Qichao, "Zhongguo shi xulun" ''Yinbinshi heji'' 6:3 and in Lydia He Liu, ''The Clash of Empires: The Invention of China in Modern World Making'' (Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 2004), pp. 77–78.</ref> and that the concept of {{Transliteration|zh|tianxia}} had to be abandoned in favor of {{Transliteration|zh|guojia}}, that is, "nation", for which he accepted the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''.<ref>[[Henrietta Harrison]]. ''China'' (London: Arnold; New York: [[Oxford University Press]]; Inventing the Nation Series, 2001. {{ISBN|0-340-74133-3}}), pp. 103–104.</ref> On the other hand, American Protestant missionary [[John Livingstone Nevius]], who had been in China for 40 years, wrote in his 1868 book that the most common name which the Chinese used in speaking of their country was ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'', followed by ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghuaguo}}'' (中華國) and other names such as {{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}} (天朝) and the particular title of the reigning dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|title = China and the Chinese|last = Nevius|first = John|publisher = Harper|year = 1868|pages = 21–22}}</ref><ref name="zhongguoname">{{cite web | url = https://www.chinanews.com.cn/m/ll/2018/01-22/8429793.shtml | title = 清朝时期"中国"作为国家名称从传统到现代的发展 | access-date = 2024-06-04}}</ref> Also, the Chinese geography textbook published in 1907 stated that "Chinese citizens call their country ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' or ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}''", and noted that China (''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'') was one of the few independent monarchical countries in the whole Asia at that time, along with countries like Japan.<ref>{{Cite book|title = 中國地理學教科書|author = 屠寄|publisher = 商務印書館|year = 1907|pages = 19–24}}</ref> The Japanese term "''[[Shina (word)|Shina]]''" was once proposed by some as a basically neutral Western-influenced equivalent for "China". But after the founding of the [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|Republic of China]] in 1912, ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was also adopted as the abbreviation of {{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua minguo}},<ref>Endymion Wilkinson, ''Chinese History: A Manual'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Rev. and enl., 2000 {{ISBN|0-674-00247-4}} ), 132.</ref> and most Chinese considered {{Transliteration|ja|Shina}} foreign and demanded that even the Japanese replace it with ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua minguo}}'', or simply ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''.<ref>Douglas R. Reynolds. ''China, 1898–1912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan''. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1993 {{ISBN|0674116607}}), pp. 215–16 n. 20.</ref>

Before the signing of the [[Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty]] in 1871, the first treaty between Qing China and the [[Empire of Japan]], Japanese representatives once raised objections to China's use of the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' in the treaty, partly in response to China's earlier objections for the term {{Transliteration|ja|Tennō}} or [[Emperor of Japan]] to be used in the treaty, declaring that the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was "meant to compare with the frontier areas of the country" and insisted that only "Great Qing" be used for the Qing in the Chinese version of the treaty. However, this was firmly rejected by the Qing representatives: "Our country China has been called ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' for a long time since ancient times. We have signed treaties with various countries, and while ''Great Qing'' did appear in the first lines of such treaties, in the body of the treaties ''Zhongguo'' was always being used. There has never been a precedent for changing the country name" (我中華之稱中國，自上古迄今，由來已久。即與各國立約，首書寫大清國字樣，其條款內皆稱中國，從無寫改國號之例). The Chinese representatives believed that ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as a country name equivalent to "Great Qing" could naturally be used internationally, which could not be changed. In the end, both sides agreed that while in the first lines "Great Qing" would be used, whether the Chinese text in the body of the treaty would use the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' in the same manner as "Great Qing" would be up to China's discretion.<ref name="zhongguoname" /><ref>{{cite book|author=黄兴涛|title=重塑中华|page=48|year=2023|publisher=大象出版社}}</ref>

[[File:Big Dragon stamps.jpg|thumb|right|Qing postal stamps released in 1878]]
Qing official Zhang Deyi once objected to the western European name "China" and said that China referred to itself as ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}''.<ref name="LIULiu2009">{{cite book |author1 = Lydia He. LIU |author2 = Lydia He Liu |title = The Clash of Empires: the invention of China in modern world making |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LkTO2_-XDa8C&pg=PA80 |date = 30 June 2009 |publisher = Harvard University Press |isbn = 978-0-674-04029-8 |pages=80–}}</ref> However, the Qing established [[legation]]s and [[consulate]]s known as the "Chinese Legation", "Imperial Consulate of China", "Imperial Chinese Consulate (General)" or similar names in [[Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty|various countries with diplomatic relations]], such as the United Kingdom and United States. Both English and Chinese terms, such as "China" and "''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''", were frequently used by Qing legations and consulates there to refer to the Qing state during their diplomatic correspondences with foreign states.<ref>{{cite book | title = 晚清駐英使館照會檔案, Volume 1 | year = 2020 | publisher = 上海古籍出版社 | pages = 28 | isbn = 9787532596096 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2KShzQEACAAJ |access-date=August 22, 2023 }}</ref> Moreover, the English name "China" was also used domestically by the Qing, such as in its officially released stamps since Qing set up a modern postal system in 1878. The [[postage stamp]]s (known as {{zhi|c=大龍郵票}} in Chinese) had a design of a large dragon in the centre, surrounded by a boxed frame with a bilingual inscription of "CHINA" (corresponding to the Great Qing Empire in Chinese) and the local denomination "CANDARINS".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stanleygibbons.com/collecting-stamps/dispatches/first-china-stamps |title=The Large Dragons of China |date=7 April 2020 |publisher=Stanley Gibbons |access-date=August 21, 2023 }}</ref>

During the late Qing dynasty, various textbooks with the name "Chinese history" (中國歷史) had emerged by the early 20th century. For example, the late Qing textbook "Chinese History of the Present Dynasty" published in 1910 stated that "the history of our present dynasty is part of the history of China, that is, the most recent history in its whole history. China was founded as a country [[Five thousand years of Chinese civilization|5,000 years ago]] and has the longest history in the world. And its culture is the best among all the Eastern countries since ancient times. Its territory covers about 90% of East Asia, and its rise and fall can affect the general trend of the countries in Asia...".<ref name="zhongguoname" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NLC416-14jh007845-69291_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8,%E5%8E%9F%E5%90%8D,%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9D%E5%8F%B2%E8%AC%9B%E7%BE%A9.pdf&page=15 |title=中國歷史教科書（原名本朝史講義）第1页 |access-date=2024-06-12 }}</ref> After the [[May Fourth Movement]] in 1919, educated students began to spread the concept of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}'', which represented the people, including [[Ethnic minorities in China|55 minority ethnic groups]] and the Han Chinese, with a single culture identifying themselves as "Chinese". The Republic of China and the People's Republic of China both used ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}'' in their official names. Thus, ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' became the common name for both governments and {{zhi|t=中國人|s=中国人|p=Zhōngguó rén|out=p}} for their citizens. [[Overseas Chinese]] are referred to as {{zhi|t=華僑|s=华侨|p=huáqiáo|l=Chinese overseas|out=p}}, or {{zhi|t=華裔|s=华裔|p=huáyì|l=Chinese descendants|out=p}}, i.e. Chinese children born overseas.