Editing Mummy (section)

== Egyptian mummies ==
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|List of Egyptian mummies}}
{{Hiero|Mummy (''sˁḥ'')|<hiero>z:a-H</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
[[File:Mummy at British Museum.jpg|left|thumb|Mummy in the British Museum]]
[[File:Bemalte Mumienbinde.JPG|thumb|left|Painted mummy bandage]]
Until recently, it was believed that the earliest [[ancient Egypt]]ian mummies were created naturally due to the environment in which they were buried.<ref name="Penn">{{cite web |title=The Egyptian Mummy |publisher=Penn Museum |url=http://www.penn.museum/long-term-exhibits/the-egyptian-mummy.html |access-date=9 November 2013 |archive-date=8 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908042505/http://www.penn.museum/long-term-exhibits/the-egyptian-mummy.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Marshall Amandine [https://www.academia.edu/8963492/On_the_Origins_of_the_Egyptian_Mummification On the origins of Egyptian mummification], Kmt 52, 2014, pp. 52–57</ref> In 2014, an 11-year study by the [[University of York]], [[Macquarie University]] and the [[University of Oxford]] suggested that artificial mummification occurred 1,500 years earlier than first thought.<ref name="uyork">{{cite web | url=http://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2014/research/mummification/ | title=Embalming study 'rewrites' key chapter in Egyptian history | publisher=University of York | date=13 August 2014 | access-date=18 August 2014}}</ref> This was confirmed in 2018, when tests on a 5,600-year-old mummy in Turin revealed that it had been deliberately mummified using linen wrappings and embalming oils made from conifer resin and aromatic plant extracts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/63351-mummy-older-than-pharaohs.html|title=This Ancient Mummy Is Older Than the Pharaohs|author1=Mindy Weisberger|date=16 August 2018|website=livescience.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/news-egyptian-prehistoric-mummy-embalming-recipe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105150122/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/news-egyptian-prehistoric-mummy-embalming-recipe|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 January 2022|title=Mummy Helps Confirm Earliest Egyptian Embalming Recipe|date=15 August 2018|website=Science}}</ref>

The preservation of the dead had a profound effect on [[ancient Egyptian religion]]. Mummification was an integral part of the rituals for the dead beginning as early as the [[Second Dynasty of Egypt|2nd dynasty]] (about 2800 BC).<ref name="Dunn" /> Egyptians saw the preservation of the body after death as an important step to [[Coffin Texts|living well in the afterlife]]. As Egypt gained more prosperity, burial practices became a status symbol for the wealthy as well. This cultural hierarchy led to the creation of elaborate [[tomb]]s, and more sophisticated methods of embalming.<ref name="Dunn" /><ref name="Fletcher">{{cite web |last=Fletcher |first=Joann |title=Mummies Around the World |date=17 February 2011 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/mummies_01.shtml |access-date=9 November 2013}}</ref>

By the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]] (about 2600 BC) Egyptian embalmers began to achieve "true mummification" through a process of [[Disembowelment|evisceration]]. Much of this early experimentation with mummification in Egypt is unknown.

The few documents that directly describe the mummification process date to the [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman period]]. The majority of the [[Papyrus|papyri]] that have survived only describe the ceremonial rituals involved in embalming, not the actual surgical processes involved. A text known as ''[[The Ritual of Embalming Papyrus|The Ritual of Embalming]]'' does describe some of the practical logistics of embalming; however, there are only two known copies and each is incomplete.<ref name="Riggs">{{cite journal |last=Riggs |first=Christina |title=Funerary Rituals (Ptolemaic and Roman Periods) |journal=UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology |publisher=UCLA Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures |date=January 2010 |url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1n10x347 |access-date=9 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="Brier&Wade">{{cite journal |last2=Wade |first2=Ronald S. |last1=Brier |first1=Bob |title=Surgical procedures during ancient Egyptian mummification |journal=[[Chungara (journal)|Chungara: Revista de Antropología Chilena]] |publisher=Universidad de Tarapaca |date=June 2001 |jstor=27802174 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=117–123}}</ref> With regards to mummification shown in images, there are apparently also very few. The tomb of Tjay, designated [[TT23]], is one of only two known which show the wrapping of a mummy (Riggs 2014).<ref name="Christina Riggs">{{cite book |last=Riggs |first=Christina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OdtgBwAAQBAJ&q=The+Ritual+of+Embalming+Papyrus&pg=PA81 |title=Unwrapping Ancient Egypt: The Shroud, the Secret and the Sacred |pages=82–83 |publisher=Bloomsbury |access-date=2015-07-01|isbn=978-0-85785-507-7 |year=2014 }}</ref>

Another text that describes the processes being used in the latter periods is [[Herodotus]]' [[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]. Written in Book 2 of the ''Histories'' is one of the most detailed descriptions of the Egyptian mummification process, including the mention of using [[natron]] in order to dehydrate corpses for preservation.<ref name="Herodotus">{{cite web| title = The Greek historian Herodotus on the process of mummification – and he has been proven accurate| publisher = University of Texas| url = http://www.utexas.edu/courses/medworld/herodotus_mummies.html| access-date = 9 November 2013| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131023202442/http://www.utexas.edu/courses/medworld/herodotus_mummies.html| archive-date = 23 October 2013| df = dmy-all}}</ref> However, these descriptions are short and fairly vague, leaving scholars to infer the majority of the techniques that were used by studying mummies that have been unearthed.<ref name="Brier&Wade" />

By utilizing current advancements in technology, scientists have been able to uncover a plethora of new information about the techniques used in mummification. A series of [[X-ray computed tomography|CT scans]] performed on a 2,400-year-old mummy in 2008 revealed a tool that was left inside the [[cranial cavity]] of the skull.<ref name="Jarus">{{cite web |last=Jarus |first=Owen |title=Oops! Brain-Removal Tool Left in Mummy's Skull |publisher=Yahoo! News |date=14 December 2012 |url=https://news.yahoo.com/oops-brain-removal-tool-left-mummys-skull-160456836.html |access-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> The tool was a rod, made of an organic material, that was used to break apart the brain to allow it to drain out of the nose. This discovery helped to dispel the claim within Herodotus' works that the rod had been a hook made of iron.<ref name="Herodotus" /> Earlier experimentation in 1994 by researchers [[Bob Brier]] and Ronald Wade supported these findings. While attempting to replicate Egyptian mummification, Brier and Wade discovered that removal of the brain was much easier when the brain was liquefied and allowed to drain with the help of [[Gravitation|gravity]], as opposed to trying to pull the organ out piece by piece with a hook.<ref name="Brier&Wade" />

[[File:Egyptian Human Mummy - Egyptian Gallery - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2014-02-14 3293.JPG|thumb|left|The Egyptian human mummy at Indian Museum, Kolkata.]]
Through various methods of study over many decades, modern [[List of Egyptologists|Egyptologists]] now have an accurate understanding of how mummification was achieved in ancient Egypt. The first and most important step was to halt the process of decomposition, by removing the internal organs and washing out the body with a mix of spices and palm wine.<ref name="Dunn" /> The only organ left behind was the heart, as tradition held the heart was the seat of thought and feeling and would therefore still be needed in the afterlife.<ref name="Dunn" /> After cleansing, the body was then dried out with natron inside the empty body cavity as well as outside on the skin. The internal organs were also dried and either sealed in individual jars, or wrapped to be replaced within the body. This process typically took forty days.<ref name="Brier&Wade" />

[[File:This wooden mummy label was inscribed in black ink. The original cord is still in situ. Roman Period. From Hawara, Fayum, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.jpg|thumb|This wooden mummy label was inscribed in black ink. The original cord is still in situ. Roman Period. From Hawara, Fayum, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London]]
After dehydration, the mummy was wrapped in many layers of [[linen]] cloth. Within the layers, Egyptian priests placed small [[amulet]]s to guard the decedent from evil.<ref name="Dunn" /> Once the mummy was completely wrapped, it was coated in resin in order to keep the threat of moist air away. The resin was also applied to the coffin in order to seal it. The mummy was then sealed within its tomb, alongside the worldly goods that were believed to help aid it in the afterlife.<ref name="Riggs" />

''[[Aspergillus niger]]'', a hardy species of [[fungus]] capable of living in a variety of environments, has been found in the mummies of ancient Egyptian tombs and can be inhaled when they are disturbed.<ref>Handwerk, Brian (6 May 2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20050507053304/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/05/0506_050506_mummycurse.html "Egypt's 'King Tut Curse' Caused by Tomb Toxins?"] ''National Geographic''.</ref>

=== Mummification and rank ===
[[File:Mòmia Nesi BMVB 2964.jpg|alt=Nesi mummy (dynasty XX). Biblioteca Museu Víctor Balaguer. Vilanova i la Geltrú. Spain|thumb|{{ill|Nasi (mummy)|lt=Nesi mummy|ca|Mòmia Nesi|es|Momia Nesi|it|Mummia Nesi}} ([[dynasty XX]]). [[Biblioteca Museu Víctor Balaguer]]. Vilanova i la Geltrú. Spain]]
Mummification is one of the defining customs in ancient Egyptian society for people today. The practice of preserving the human body is believed to be a quintessential feature of Egyptian life. Yet even mummification has a history of development and was accessible to different ranks of society in different ways during different periods. There were at least three different processes of mummification according to [[Herodotus]]. They range from "the most perfect" to the method employed by the "poorer classes".<ref name="Brooklyn Museum">{{cite book |last1=Bleiberg |first1=Edward |title=To Live Forever: Egyptian Treasures from the Brooklyn Museum |date=2008 |publisher=Brooklyn Museum |location=Brooklyn, New York |page=50 |author1-link=Edward Bleiberg }}</ref>

==== "Most perfect" method ====
[[File:Mummification simple.png|thumb|500x500px|Simplistic representation of the Ancient Egyptian mummification process.]]
The most expensive process was to preserve the body by dehydration and protect against pests, such as insects. Almost all of the actions Herodotus described served one of these two functions.

First, the [[brain]] was removed from the [[cranium]] through the nose; the gray matter was discarded. Modern mummy excavations have shown that instead of an iron hook inserted through the nose as Herodotus claims, a rod was used to [[wikt:liquefy|liquefy]] the brain via the cranium, which then drained out the nose by gravity. The embalmers then rinsed the skull with certain drugs that mostly cleared any residue of brain tissue and also had the effect of killing bacteria. Next, the embalmers made an incision along the [[Flank (anatomy)|flank]] with a sharp blade fashioned from an [[Ethiopia]]n stone and removed the contents of the abdomen. Herodotus does not discuss the separate preservation of these organs and their placement either in special jars or back in the cavity, a process that was part of the most expensive embalming, according to archaeological evidence.

The [[abdominal cavity]] was then rinsed with palm wine and an infusion of crushed, fragrant herbs and spices; the cavity was then filled with spices including [[myrrh]], [[Cinnamomum cassia|cassia]], and, Herodotus notes, "every other sort of spice except [[frankincense]]", also to preserve the person.

The body was further dehydrated by placing it in [[natron]], a naturally occurring salt, for 70 days. Herodotus insists that the body did not stay in the natron longer than 70 days. Any shorter time and the body would not be completely dehydrated; any longer, and the body would be too stiff to move into position for wrapping. The embalmers then washed the body again and wrapped it with linen bandages. The bandages were covered with a gum that modern research has shown is both a waterproofing agent and an antimicrobial agent.

At this point, the body was given back to the family. These "perfect" mummies were then placed in human-shaped wooden cases. Wealthy people placed these wooden cases in stone sarcophagi that provided further protection. The family placed the [[sarcophagus]] in the tomb upright against the wall, according to Herodotus.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bleiberg |first1=Edward |title=To Live Forever: Egyptian Treasures from the Brooklyn Museum |date=2008 |publisher=Brooklyn Museum |location=Brooklyn, New York |pages=50–51 |author1-link=Edward Bleiberg }}</ref>

==== Avoiding expense ====

The second process that Herodotus describes was used by middle-class people or people who "wish to avoid expense". In this method, an oil derived from [[Cedrus|cedar trees]] was injected with a syringe into the abdomen. A rectal plug prevented the oil from escaping. This oil probably had the dual purpose of liquefying the internal organs but also of disinfecting the abdominal cavity. (By liquefying the organs, the family avoided the expense of [[canopic jar]]s and separate preservation.) The body was then placed in [[natron]] for seventy days. At the end of this time, the body was removed and the cedar oil, now containing the liquefied organs, was drained through the [[rectum]]. With the body dehydrated, it could be returned to the family. Herodotus does not describe the process of burial of such mummies, but they were perhaps placed in a [[shaft tomb]]. Poorer people used coffins fashioned from [[terracotta]].<ref name="Brooklyn Museum"/>

==== Inexpensive method ====

The third and least expensive method the embalmers offered was to clear the [[intestines]] with an unnamed liquid, injected as an [[enema]]. The body was then placed in [[natron]] for seventy days and returned to the family. Herodotus gives no further details.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bleiberg |first1=Edward |title=To Live Forever: Egyptian Treasures from the Brooklyn Museum |date=2008 |publisher=Brooklyn Museum |location=Brooklyn, New York |page=52 |author1-link=Edward Bleiberg }}</ref>