Editing Mongolian language (section)

== Classification and varieties ==
[[File:MongolicLanguagesGraph.svg|thumb|250px|Modern Mongolian's place on the chronological tree of Mongolic languages]]

Mongolian belongs to the [[Mongolic languages]]. The delimitation of the Mongolian language within Mongolic is a much disputed theoretical problem, one whose resolution is impeded by the fact that existing data for the major [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]] is not easily arrangeable according to a common set of linguistic criteria. Such data might account for the [[Historical linguistics|historical]] development of the Mongolian [[dialect continuum]], as well as for its [[Sociolinguistics|sociolinguistic]] qualities. Though phonological and lexical studies are comparatively well developed,<ref>See especially Rinčjen (1979), Amaržargal (1988), Coloo (1988) and for a general bibliography on Mongolic phonology Svantesson ''et al.'' (2005): 218–229.</ref> the basis has yet to be laid for a comparative [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphosyntactic]] study, for example between such highly diverse varieties as Khalkha and Khorchin.<ref>See Ashimura (2002) for a rare piece of research into dialect morphosyntax that shows significant differences between Khalkha and Khorchin.</ref><ref>Janhunen (2003): 189.</ref>

In Juha Janhunen's book titled ''Mongolian'', he groups the Mongolic language family into four distinct linguistic branches:{{sfn|Janhunen|2012|p=3}}
* the Dagur branch, made up of just the [[Dagur language]], which is spoken in the northeast area of [[Manchuria]] in China, specifically in [[Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner]] of [[Hulunbuir]], and in [[Meilisi Daur District]] of [[Qiqihar]], [[Heilongjiang]];
* the Moghol branch, made up of just the [[Moghol language]], spoken in Afghanistan, and is possibly extinct;
* the Shirongolic (or Southern Mongolic) branch, made up of roughly seven languages, which are spoken in the [[Amdo]] region of [[Tibet]];
* the Common Mongolic (or Central Mongolic) branch, made up of roughly six language varieties, to which '''Mongolian proper''' belongs.

The Common Mongolic branch is grouped in the following way:{{sfn|Janhunen|2012|p=3}}
* [[Khalkha Mongolian|Khalkha]] ({{lang|mn-latn|Khalkh}}) is spoken in Mongolia, but some dialects (e.g. [[Chakhar Mongolian|Cahar]]) are also spoken in the [[Inner Mongolia]] region of China.
* [[Khorchin Mongolian|Khorchin]] ({{lang|mn-latn|Khorchin}}) is spoken to the east in eastern Inner Mongolia and [[Manchuria]].
* [[Ordos Mongolian|Ordos]] is spoken to the south, in [[Ordos City]] in Inner Mongolia.
* [[Oirat language|Oirat]], is spoken to the west, in [[Dzungaria]].
* [[Khamnigan Mongol|Khamnigan]] ({{lang|mn-latn|Khamnigan}}) is spoken in northeast Mongolia and in northwest of Manchuria.
* [[Buryat language|Buryat]] ({{lang|mn-latn|Buriad}}) is spoken to the north, in the Republic of [[Buryatia]] of [[Russia]], as well as in the [[Barga Mongols|Barga]] region of [[Hulunbuir|Hulun Buir League]] in Inner Mongolia.

There is no disagreement that the Khalkha dialect of the Mongolian state is Mongolian.<ref>For an exact delimitation of Khalkha, see Amaržargal (1988): 24–25.</ref> However, the status of certain varieties in the Common Mongolic group—whether they are languages distinct from Mongolian or just dialects of it—is disputed. There are at least three such varieties: [[Oirat language|Oirat]] (including the [[Kalmyk Oirat|Kalmyk variety]]) and Buryat, both of which are spoken in Russia, Mongolia, and China; and [[Ordos Mongolian|Ordos]], spoken around Inner Mongolia's [[Ordos City]].<ref>See Janhunen (ed.) (2003) and Sečenbaγatur ''et al.'' (2005) for two classificatory schemes.</ref> The influential classification of Sanžeev (1953) proposed a "Mongolian language" consisting of just the three dialects Khalkha, Chakhar, and Ordos, with Buryat and Oirat judged to be independent languages.<ref>Sanžeev (1953): 27–61, especially 55.</ref> On the other hand, Luvsanvandan (1959) proposed a much broader "Mongolian language" consisting of a Central dialect (Khalkha, Chakhar, Ordos), an Eastern dialect (Kharchin, Khorchin), a Western dialect (Oirat, Kalmyk), and a Northern dialect (consisting of two Buryat varieties).<ref>Quoted from Sečenbaγatur ''et al.'' (2005): 167–168.</ref> Additionally, the ''Language Policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949'', states that Mongolian can be classified into four dialects: the Khalkha dialect in the middle, the Horcin-Haracin dialect in the East, Oriat-Hilimag in the west, and Bargu–Buriyad in the north.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-XDdBgAAQBAJ&q=Language+Policy+in+the+People%E2%80%99s+Republic+of+China+The+Use+and+Development+of+Mongol+and+its+Writing+Systems+in+China&pg=PA288|title=Language Policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949|last1=Zhou|first1=Minglang|last2=Sun|first2=Hongkai|date=2006-04-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-8039-5|language=en}}</ref>

Some Western scholars<ref>Janhunen (2003)</ref> propose that the relatively well researched Ordos variety is an independent language due to its conservative syllable structure and [[phoneme]] inventory. While the placement of a variety like [[Alasha dialect|Alasha]],<ref>Sečenbaγatur ''et al.'' (2005): 265–266.</ref> which is under the cultural influence of Inner Mongolia but historically tied to Oirat, and of other border varieties like [[Darkhad dialect|Darkhad]] would very likely remain problematic in any classification,<ref>Sečenbaγatur ''et al.'' (2005): 266 classify Alasha as a variety of Southern Mongolian according to morphological criteria, while Svantesson ''et al.'' (2005): 148 classify it as a variety of Oirat according to phonological criteria. For a discussion of opinions on the classification of Darkhad, see Sanžaa and Tujaa (2001): 33–34.</ref> the central problem remains the question of how to classify Chakhar, Khalkha, and Khorchin in relation to each other and in relation to Buryat and Oirat.<ref>Sečenbaγatur ''et al.'' (2005): 166–73, 184–195.</ref><ref>Janhunen (2003): 180.</ref> The split of {{IPA|[tʃ]}} into {{IPA|[tʃ]}} before *i and {{IPA|[ts]}} before all other reconstructed vowels, which is found in Mongolia but not in Inner Mongolia, is often cited as a fundamental distinction,<ref>Svantesson ''et al.'' (2005): 143, Poppe (1955): 110–115.</ref> for example [[Proto-Mongolic]] {{IPA|*tʃil}}, Khalkha {{IPA|/tʃiɮ/}}, Chakhar {{IPA|/tʃil/}} 'year' versus Proto-Mongolic {{IPA|*tʃøhelen}}, Khalkha {{IPA|/tsoːɮəŋ/}}, Chakhar {{IPA|/tʃoːləŋ/}} 'few'.<ref>Svantesson ''et al.'' (2006): 159–160; the difference between the [l]s might just be due to the impossibility of reconstructing something as precise as {{IPA|[ɮ]}} for Proto-Mongolic and imprecision or convenience in notation for Chakhar, Dobu (1983).</ref> On the other hand, the split between the past tense verbal suffixes -{{IPA|/sŋ/}} in the Central varieties v. -{{IPA|/dʒɛː/}} in the Eastern varieties<ref>e.g. ''bi tegün-i taniǰei'' I him know.{{smallcaps|past}} 'I knew him' is accepted and ?''Bi öčögedür iregsen'' rejected by Chuluu (1998): 140, 165; in Khalkha, by contrast, the first sentence would not appear with the meaning attributed to it, while the second is perfectly acceptable.</ref> is usually seen as a merely [[stochastic]] difference.<ref>See, for example, Činggeltei (1959). This split is blurred by the school grammar, which treats several dialectal varieties as one coherent grammatical system; e.g. Činggeltei (1979, 1999). This understanding is in turn reflected in the undecided treatment of -{{IPA|/sŋ/}} in research work like Bayančoγtu (2002): 306.</ref>

In Inner Mongolia, official language policy divides the Mongolian language into three dialects: [[Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia|Standard Mongolian of Inner Mongolia]], Oirat, and Barghu-Buryat. The Standard Mongolian of Inner Mongolia is said to consist of Chakhar, Ordos, [[Baarin Mongolian|Baarin]], Khorchin, Kharchin, and Alasha. The authorities have synthesized a [[Standard language|literary standard]] for Mongolian in whose grammar is said to be based on the Standard Mongolian of Inner Mongolia and whose pronunciation is based on the Chakhar dialect as spoken in the [[Eight Banners|Plain Blue Banner]].<ref>Sečenbaγatur ''et al.'' (2005): 85. "Öbür mongγul ayalγu bol dumdadu ulus-un mongγul kelen-ü saγuri ayalγu bolqu büged dumdadu ulus-un mongγul kelen-ü barimǰiy-a abiy-a ni čaqar aman ayalγun-du saγurilaγsan bayidaγ."</ref> Dialectologically, however, western Mongolian dialects in Inner Mongolia are closer to Khalkha than they are to eastern Mongolian dialects in Inner Mongolia: e.g. Chakhar is closer to Khalkha than to Khorchin.<ref>Janhunen 2003d.</ref>

=== List of dialects ===
Juha Janhunen (2003: 179)<ref>Janhunen, Juha (2003). ''The Mongolic Languages''. p. 179. Routledge Language Family Series 5. London: Routledge.</ref> lists the following Mongol dialects, most of which are spoken in [[Inner Mongolia]].
*'''[[Tongliao]]''' group
**Horchin
**Jasagtu
**Jarut
**Jalait
**Dörbet
**Gorlos
*'''[[Chifeng|Juu Uda]]''' group
**Aru Horchin
**Baarin
**Ongniut
**Naiman
**Aohan
*'''[[Josutu League|Josotu]]''' group
**Harachin
**Tümet
*'''[[Ulanqab|Ulan cab]]''' group
**[[Chakhar Mongolian|Cahar]]
**Urat
**Darhan
**Muumingan
**Dörben Küüket
**Keshigten
*'''[[Xilingol League|Shilingol]]''' group
**Üdzümüchin
**Huuchit
**Abaga
**Abaganar
**Sönit
*'''Outer Mongolian''' group
**[[Khalkha Mongolian|Halh]]
**Hotogoit
**[[Darkhad dialect|Darhad]]
**Congol
**Sartul
**Dariganga

===Standard varieties===
There are two [[standard varieties]] of Mongolian.

==== Mongolia ====
Standard Mongolian in the state of Mongolia is based on the northern Khalkha Mongolian dialects, which include the dialect of [[Ulaanbaatar]], and is written in the [[Mongolian Cyrillic script]].<ref name="Svantesson et al. 2005: 9-10">Svantesson ''et al.'' (2005): 9-10</ref>

==== China ====
Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia is based on the Chakhar Mongolian of the Khalkha dialect group,<ref name="Svantesson et al. 2005: 9-10"/> spoken in the [[Zhenglan Banner|Shuluun Huh/Zhènglán Banner]],<ref>Dàobù 1982, p. 2.</ref> and is written in the [[traditional Mongolian script]].

The number of Mongolian speakers in China is still larger than in the state of Mongolia,<ref>Juha Janhunen (Hg.): ''The Mongolic Languages''. London / New York: Routledge, 2003; ISBN 0-7007-1133-3; S.&nbsp;xviii.</ref> where the majority of Mongolians in China speak one of the [[Khorchin Mongolian|Khorchin dialects]], or rather more than two million of them speak the Khorchin dialect itself as their mother tongue, so that the Khorchin dialect group has about as many speakers as the Khalkha dialect group in the State of Mongolia. Nevertheless, the Chakhar dialect, which today has only about 100,000 native speakers and belongs to the Khalkha dialect group, is the basis of standard Mongolian in China.<ref>Svantesson ''et al.'' (2005): 11-12</ref>

==== Differences ====
The characteristic differences in the pronunciation of the two standard varieties include the umlauts in Inner Mongolia and the palatalized consonants in Mongolia (see below) as well as the splitting of the Middle Mongol affricates *{{IPA|tʃ}} ({{MongolUnicode|ᠴ|valign=middle|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|č}}'') and *{{IPA|dʒ}} ({{MongolUnicode|ᠵ|valign=middle|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}'') into {{IPA|ts}} ({{Lang|mn|ц}} {{Transliteration|mn|c}}) and {{IPA|dz}} ({{Lang|mn|з}} {{Transliteration|mn|z}}) versus {{IPA|tʃ}} ({{Lang|mn|ч}} {{Transliteration|mn|č}}) and {{IPA|dʒ}} ({{Lang|mn|ж}} {{Transliteration|mn|ž}}) in Mongolia:<ref>Mongolian language. In: Christopher P. Atwood: ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire''. New York: Facts On File, 2004; ISBN 0-8160-4671-9; S.&nbsp;373 und Владимирцов 1988 (1929) p. 390; examples harmonized to {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠨᠭᠭᠣᠯ<br />ᠬᠢᠲᠠᠳ<br />ᠲᠣᠯᠢ}} / {{lang|zh-Hans|《蒙汉词典》}} 1999 and {{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠠᠯᠰᠠᠩᠫᠤᠩᠰᠣᠭ}} / Галсанпунцаг 2004.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Middle Mongol !! Inner Mongolia !! Mongolia !! Meaning
|-
| *{{IPA|tʃisu}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠢᠰᠤ|lang=xng|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|čisu}}'' || [{{IPA|tʃʊs}}] {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠢᠰᠤ|lang=mvf|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|čisu}}'' || [{{IPA|tsʊs}}] {{Lang|mn|цус}} {{Transliteration|mn|cus}} || blood
|-
| *{{IPA|dʒɑm}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠠᠮ|lang=xng|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰam}}'' || [{{IPA|dʒɑm}}] {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠠᠮ|lang=mvf|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰam}}'' || [{{IPA|dzɑm}}] {{Lang|mn|зам}} {{Transliteration|mn|zam}} || street
|-
| *{{IPA|otʃixu}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠣᠴᠢᠬᠤ|lang=xng|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|očiqu}}'' || [{{IPA|ɔtʃɪx}}] {{MongolUnicode|ᠣᠴᠢᠬᠤ|lang=mvf|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|očiqu}}'' || [{{IPA|ɔtʃɪx}}] {{Lang|mn|очих}} {{Transliteration|mn|očix}} || to go
|-
| *{{IPA|dʒime}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠢᠮ&nbsp;ᠡ|lang=xng|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰim{{nbh}}e}}'' || [{{IPA|dʒim}}] {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠢᠮ&nbsp;ᠡ|lang=mvf|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰim{{nbh}}e}}'' || [{{IPA|dʒim}}] {{Lang|mn|жим}} {{Transliteration|mn|žim}} || path
|}
Aside from these differences in pronunciation, there are also differences in vocabulary and language use: in the state of Mongolia more [[loanword]]s from [[Russian language|Russian]] are being used, while in Inner Mongolia more loanwords from [[Chinese language|Chinese]] have been adopted.<ref>Atwood p.&nbsp;374.</ref>