Editing Malayo-Polynesian languages (section)

==Classification==
===Relation to Austronesian languages on Taiwan===
In spite of a few features shared with the [[Eastern Formosan languages]] (such as the merger of [[Proto-Austronesian language|proto-Austronesian]] *t, *C to /t/), there is no conclusive evidence that would link the Malayo-Polynesian languages to any one of the primary branches of Austronesian on Taiwan.<ref name=Blust2013>{{cite book |last=Blust |first=Robert |title=The Austronesian Languages |edition=revised|publisher=Australian National University|year=2013|isbn=978-1-922185-07-5|hdl=1885/10191 }}</ref>

===Internal classification===
Malayo-Polynesian consists of a large number of small local language clusters, with the one exception being [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]], the only large group which is universally accepted; its parent language [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]] has been reconstructed in all aspects of its structure (phonology, lexicon, morphology and syntax). All other large groups within Malayo-Polynesian are controversial.

The most influential proposal for the internal subgrouping of the Malayo-Polynesian languages was made by [[Robert Blust]] who presented several papers advocating a division into two major branches, viz. '''Western Malayo-Polynesian''' and '''Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian'''.<ref>Blust, R. (1993).
[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3623195 Central and Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian.] ''Oceanic Linguistics, 32''(2), 241–293.</ref>

[[Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages|Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian]] is widely accepted as a subgroup, although some objections have been raised against its validity as a genetic subgroup.<ref>[[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross, Malcolm]] (2005), "Some current issues in Austronesian linguistics", in D.T. Tryon, ed., ''Comparative Austronesian Dictionary'', 1, 45–120. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</ref><ref>Donohue, M., & Grimes, C. (2008). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20172341 Yet More on the Position of the Languages of Eastern Indonesia and East Timor.] ''Oceanic Linguistics, 47''(1), 114–158.</ref> On the other hand, [[Western Malayo-Polynesian languages|Western Malayo-Polynesian]] is now generally held (including by Blust himself) to be an umbrella term without genetic relevance. Taking into account the [[Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages|Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian]] hypothesis, the Malayo-Polynesian languages can be divided into the following subgroups (proposals for larger subgroups are given below):<ref>Adelaar, K. Alexander, and Himmelmann, Nikolaus. 2005. ''The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar.'' London: Routledge.</ref>

{{tree list}}
*Malayo-Polynesian
**[[Philippine languages|Philippine]] (disputed)
***[[Batanic languages]]
***[[Northern Luzon languages|Northern Luzon]]
***[[Central Luzon languages|Central Luzon]]
***[[Northern Mindoro languages|Northern Mindoro]]
***[[Greater Central Philippine languages|Greater Central Philippine]]
***[[Kalamian languages|Kalamian]]
***[[South Mindanao languages|South Mindanao]] (also called Bilic languages)
***[[Sangiric languages|Sangiric]]
***[[Minahasan languages|Minahasan]]
***[[Umiray Dumaget language|Umiray Dumaget]]
***[[Philippine languages|Manide–Alabat]]
***[[Ati language (Philippines)|Ati]]
***[[Klata language|Klata]]
**[[Sama–Bajaw languages|Sama–Bajaw]]
**[[Greater North Borneo languages|North Bornean]]
***[[Sabahan languages|Northeast Sabahan]]
***[[Sabahan languages|Southwest Sabahan]]
***[[North Sarawak languages|North Sarawak]]
**[[Kayan–Murik languages|Kayan–Murik]]
**[[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]]
**[[Barito languages|Barito]] (including [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]])
**[[Moklenic languages|Moken–Moklen]]
**[[Malayo-Chamic languages|Malayo-Chamic]]
***[[Chamic languages|Chamic]]
***[[Malayic languages|Malayic]]
**[[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]] (probably including the [[Enggano language]])
**[[Rejang language|Rejang]]
**[[Lampung language|Lampung-Komering]]
**[[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]
**[[Javanese language|Javanese]]
**[[Madurese language|Madurese]]
**[[Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa languages|Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa]]
**[[Celebic languages|Celebic]]
**[[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]]
**[[Palauan language|Palauan]]
**[[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]
**[[Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages|Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian]]
***[[Central Malayo-Polynesian languages|Central Malayo-Polynesian]] (dubious)
****[[Sumba–Flores languages|Sumba–Flores]]
****[[Flores–Lembata languages|Flores–Lembata]]
****[[Selaru languages|Selaru]]
****[[Kei–Tanimbar languages|Kei–Tanimbar]]
****[[Aru languages|Aru]]
****[[Central Maluku languages|Central Maluku]]
****[[Timoric languages|Timoric]] (also called Timor–Babar languages)
****[[Kowiai language|Kowiai]]
****[[Teor-Kur language|Teor-Kur]]
***Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (dubious)
****[[South Halmahera–West New Guinea languages|South Halmahera–West New Guinea]]
****[[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] (approximately 450 languages)
{{tree list/end}}

====Nasal====
The position of the recently rediscovered [[Nasal language]] (spoken on Sumatra) is unclear; it shares features of lexicon and phonology with both [[Lampung languages|Lampung]] and [[Rejangese language|Rejang]].<ref>Anderbeck, Karl; Aprilani, Herdian (2013). ''[http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/54043 The Improbable Language: Survey Report on the Nasal Language of Bengkulu, Sumatra]''. SIL Electronic Survey Report. SIL International.</ref>

====Enggano====
Edwards (2015)<ref name="Edwards2015">Edwards, Owen (2015). "The Position of Enggano within Austronesian." ''Oceanic Linguistics'' 54 (1): 54–109.</ref> argues that [[Enggano language|Enggano]] is a primary branch of Malayo-Polynesian. However, this is disputed by Smith (2017), who considers Enggano to have undergone significant internal changes, but to have once been much more like other Sumatran languages in Sumatra.

====Philippine languages====
{{main|Philippine languages}}
The status of the Philippine languages as subgroup of Malayo-Polynesian is disputed. While many scholars (such as [[Robert Blust]]) support a genealogical subgroup that includes the languages of the Philippines and northern Sulawesi,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blust |first=Robert |year=2019 |title=The Resurrection of Proto-Philippines |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=153–256 |doi=10.1353/ol.2019.0008 |s2cid=216726665 |ref=apa}}</ref> Reid (2018) rejects the hypothesis of a single Philippine subgroup, but instead argues that the Philippine branches represent first-order subgroups directly descended from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian.<ref name="Reid2018">Reid, Lawrence A. 2018. "[https://minpaku.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_uri&item_id=7893&file_id=22&file_no=1 Modeling the linguistic situation in the Philippines]." In ''Let's Talk about Trees'', ed. by Ritsuko Kikusawa and Lawrence A. Reid. Osaka: Senri Ethnological Studies, Minpaku. {{doi|10.15021/00009006}}</ref>

===={{vanchor|Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian}} (Zobel 2002)====  <!--target of redirect [[Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian languages]]-->
Zobel (2002) proposes a ''Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian'' subgroup, based on putative shared innovations in the [[Austronesian alignment]] and [[syntax]] found throughout Indonesia apart from much of Borneo and the north of Sulawesi. This subgroup comprises the languages of the [[Greater Sunda Islands]] ([[Malayo-Chamic languages|Malayo-Chamic]], [[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]], [[Lampung language|Lampung]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Madurese language|Madurese]], [[Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa languages|Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa]]) and most of Sulawesi ([[Celebic languages|Celebic]], [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]]), [[Palauan language|Palauan]], [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] and the [[Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages]].<ref>Zobel, Erik, "The position of Chamorro and Palauan in the Austronesian family tree: evidence from verb morphosyntax". In: Fay Wouk and Malcolm Ross (ed.), 2002. ''The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems.'' Australian National University.</ref> This hypothesis is one of the few attempts to link certain [[Western Malayo-Polynesian languages]] with the [[Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages]] in a higher intermediate subgroup, but has received little further scholarly attention.

====Malayo-Sumbawan (Adelaar 2005)====
{{main|Malayo-Sumbawan languages}}
The Malayo-Sumbawan languages are a proposal by [[K. Alexander Adelaar]] (2005) which unites the [[Malayo-Sumbawan languages|Malayo-Chamic languages]], the [[Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa languages]], [[Madurese language|Madurese]] and [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]] into a single subgroup based on phonological as well as lexical evidence.<ref>Adelaar, A. (2005). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3623345 Malayo-Sumbawan.] ''Oceanic Linguistics, 44''(2), 357–388.</ref>

{{tree list}}
*Malayo-Sumbawan
**Malayo-Chamic-BSS
***[[Malayic languages|Malayic]]
***[[Chamic languages|Chamic]]
***[[Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa languages|Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa]]
**[[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]
**[[Madurese language|Madurese]]
{{tree list/end}}

====Greater North Borneo (Blust 2010; Smith 2017, 2017a)====
{{main|Greater North Borneo languages}}
The Greater North Borneo hypothesis, which unites all languages spoken on Borneo except for the [[Barito languages]] together with the [[Malayo-Sumbawan languages|Malayo-Chamic languages]], [[Rejangese language|Rejang]] and [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]] into a single subgroup, was first proposed by Blust (2010) and further elaborated by Smith (2017, 2017a).<ref name=Blust2010>{{cite journal| last=Blust |first=Robert |title=The Greater North Borneo Hypothesis |year=2010 |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=44–118 |jstor=40783586 |doi=10.1353/ol.0.0060 |s2cid=145459318 }}</ref><ref name=SmithWMP>{{cite journal| last=Smith |first=Alexander D. |title=The Western Malayo-Polynesian Problem |year=2017 |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=435–490|doi=10.1353/ol.2017.0021 |s2cid=149377092 }}</ref><ref>Smith, Alexander (2017a). ''The Languages of Borneo: A Comprehensive Classification''. PhD Dissertation: University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa.</ref>

{{tree list}}
*[[Greater North Borneo languages|Greater North Borneo]]
**[[Bornean languages|North Borneo]]
***[[Sabahan languages|Northeast Sabah]]
***[[Sabahan languages|Southwest Sabah]]
***[[North Sarawak languages|North Sarawak]]
**[[Kayan–Murik languages|Kayan–Murik]]
**[[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]]
**[[Malayo-Chamic languages|Malayo-Chamic]]
**[[Moklenic languages|Moken]] (not included by Smith (2017))
**[[Rejang language|Rejang]]
**[[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]
{{tree list/end}}

Because of the inclusion of Malayo-Chamic and Sundanese, the Greater North Borneo hypothesis is incompatible with Adelaar's Malayo-Sumbawan proposal. Consequently, Blust explicitly rejects Malayo-Sumbawan as a subgroup. The Greater North Borneo subgroup is based solely on lexical evidence.

====Smith (2017)==== <!--target of redirect [[Western Indonesian languages]]-->
Based on a proposal initially brought forward by Blust (2010) as an extension of the Greater North Borneo hypothesis,<ref name=Blust2010/> Smith (2017) unites several Malayo-Polynesian subgroups in a "Western Indonesian" group, thus greatly reducing the number of primary branches of Malayo-Polynesian:<ref name=SmithWMP/>

{{tree list}}
*Malayo-Polynesian
**Western Indonesian
***[[Greater North Borneo languages|Greater North Borneo]]
****North Borneo
*****[[Sabahan languages|Northeast Sabah]]
*****[[Sabahan languages|Southwest Sabah]]
*****[[North Sarawakan languages|North Sarawak]]
****[[Melanau–Kajang languages|Central Sarawak]]
****[[Kayan–Murik languages|Kayanic]]
****[[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]]
****[[Malayic languages|Malayic]]
****[[Chamic languages|Chamic]]
****[[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]
****[[Rejang language|Rejang]]
***Greater Barito  ([[linkage (linguistics)|linkage]])
****[[Sama–Bajaw languages|Sama–Bajaw]]
****[[Barito languages|Greater Barito]]  ([[paraphyletic]] [[linkage (linguistics)|linkage]]<ref>Smith, Alexander D. 2018. [http://hdl.handle.net/10524/52418 The Barito Linkage Hypothesis, with a Note on the Position of Basap]. JSEALS Volume 11.1 (2018).</ref>)
***[[Lampung language|Lampung]]
***[[Javanese language|Javanese]]
***[[Madurese language|Madurese]]
***[[Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa languages|Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa]]
**Sumatran (an extended version of [[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]] that also comprises [[Nasal language|Nasal]]; the question of internal subgrouping is left open by Smith)
**[[Celebic languages|Celebic]]
**[[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]]
**[[Palauan language|Palauan]]
**[[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]
**[[Moklenic languages|Moklenic]]
**[[Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages|Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian]]
**[[Philippine languages|Philippine]] ([[linkage (linguistics)|linkage]]) (according to Smith, "not a subgroup as much as a [[linkage (linguistics)|loosely related group]] of languages that may contain multiple primary branches")
{{tree list/end}}