Editing Madagascar (section)

===Arab and European contacts===
[[File:Detail_of_Diogo_Dias's_ship_(Cabral_Armada).jpg|thumb|left|European contact began in 1500 when [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese explorer]] [[Diogo Dias]] recorded the island while participating in the [[2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)|2nd Portuguese India Armadas]].]]

The [[Recorded history|written history]] of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced [[Islam]], the [[Arabic script]] (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as ''[[sorabe]]''), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.<ref name="LOC"/>
The Arabs also contributed to the blood mixture that today forms the Malagasy people. As masters of the entire African coastline, they repeatedly sent numerous migrations to the island, using the Comoros Islands as stopovers. Their traces can still be found along all the coasts, although it is doubtful that they ever penetrated far inland, since their colonies were founded mainly for commercial purposes. The Arabs primarily bought slaves, especially [[Merina people|Hova]] slaves from the center of the island for the [[Indian Ocean slave trade|Indian Ocean markets]]. They were never able to convert the indigenous population to Islam, but they did manage to introduce some Muslim practices into local customs, which became widespread across the island. These included circumcision, abstaining from eating pork, and aversion of dogs.These customs led some early European travelers to wrongly believe that several tribes followed the doctrine of [[Muhammad]]. <ref>Grandidier, Alfred, and Guillaume Grandidier. ''Collection des ouvrages anciens concernant Madagascar'', vol. II, pp. 90–91. Paris, 1904.</ref><ref>Barbié du Bocage, V. A. ''Madagascar, possession française depuis 1642'', pp. 66–67, 85. Paris: Arthus Bertrand, Libraire de la Société de Géographie, 21 rue Hautefeuille.</ref>
European contact began in 1500, when the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] sea captain [[Diogo Dias]] sighted the island, while participating in the [[2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)|2nd Armada]] of the [[Portuguese India Armadas]].<ref name="BGNote" /> In 1506, the Portuguese failed in their attempts to destroy Arab-[[Antalaotra]] settlements in Northern Madagascar despite violent raids led by [[Tristão da Cunha]] and [[Afonso de Albuquerque]]. Portuguese efforts of Christianization there also failed when their missionaries were massacred by natives. The Portuguese then resorted to the slave trade, buying slaves from the Arabs or [[Antalaotra]] when they did not acquire them directly through deceit or violence.  <ref>Gérard Naal, ''Abrégé d'histoire de Madagascar'', L'Harmattan, 2015, p. 20</ref><ref>Hubert Deschamps, ''Histoire de Madagascar'', p. 63</ref>
When the enterprise of colonization in the northwestern Madagascar was undone, the 
Portuguese, directed their ambition toward the southeastern coasts.
In 1548, the Portuguese made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a settlement in the bay of Ranofotsy or Gallions bay in [[Anosy]]. The expedition ended in tragedy when Portuguese sailors and missionaries were attacked and massacred by the [[Antanosy]] people. The few survivors sought refuge in a stone house they had constructed and managed to defend themselves. In retaliation, they launched frequent raids on nearby villages, burning homes and demanding ransoms from local Inhabitants until they were rescued by Portuguese ships. 

At the same time, another violent incident occurred in the [[Fitovinany|Matatana]] region, where 80 Portuguese settlers were killed in a separate massacre by the [[Zafiraminia|locals]]. These tragic events likely discouraged further Portuguese expeditions to Madagascar for several decades.<ref>Malotet, Arthur. ''Étienne de Flacourt, ou Les Origines de la Colonisation Française à Madagascar (1648–1661)''. Paris: 1898, p. 15.</ref><ref name="SLG1891">''Bulletin trimestriel – Société languedocienne de géographie'', vol. 14, 1891, p. 620.</ref>

During this period, [[Iberian Union|Portugal came under the rule of Spain]], which focused primarily on its colonies in the Americas and the lucrative Spice Islands. As a result, Madagascar—seen as less economically valuable—was largely neglected. Substantial Portuguese activity on the island did not resume until the early 17th century.

[[File:Matatana.jpg|thumb|Matatana 
 settlement of the beginning of the 16th century where Portuguese were massacred in 1548]]
The Portuguese, who had not yet founded any establishment in Madagascar, yet fervently desired to do so through evangelization. In 1613, they found their wishes nearly realized when [[Andriandramaka]], the son of the king of Fanshere Andriatsiambany  having lately forged friendly relations with the Portuguese arrived in their city of Goa as a hostage.
The king agreed to send his son Andriandramaka to Goa, while two missionaries and four Portuguese stayed as hostages on Santa-Cruz, near [[Sainte Luce Reserve|Saint-Lucas]]. The king gave Santa-Cruz to the missionaries to build a church.

The young prince from Fanshere was treated kindly in Goa by Viceroy [[Jerónimo de Azevedo]]. He was educated by Jesuit priests and baptized. He promised that, if he could return to his homeland, he would convince his father to accept an alliance with the Portuguese and to adopt Christianity. People believed he would keep his promise.

In 1615, the viceroy prepared four large ships with around 100 soldiers and four Jesuit missionaries. The mission's goal was to spread the Christian faith in Fanshere. The fleet left Goa with high hopes.
However, less than a year later, the ships returned. The mission had failed. The Jesuit priests advised leaving because the people of Fanshère had not welcomed them. 
The king, persuaded by the [[Soothsayer|Ombiasses—priests]] completely changed his attitude towards the Portuguese. He even forbade his subjects to give or sell any food to the foreigners. This left the Portuguese in a desperate situation.
One of the missionaries soon died, and another, along with six companions, quickly left on a Portuguese ship to return to India. 
The new failure of the expedition from Goa, added to others like it, discouraged Portugal. Seeing Madagascar only as a graveyard for its soldiers, Portugal decided to abandon it for good. This left the island open for other nations to try, at their own risk, to conquer it.<ref>La Vaissière, Camille de. ''Histoire de Madagascar: ses habitants et ses missionnaires'', vol. 1, 1884, pp. 1–7.</ref>

At that time, the English and the Dutch were competing for control of the Indian Empire. From 1618 to 1640, these two Protestant nations tried to establish rival settlements on various parts of the island and nearby islands. However, their colonization efforts, which were not very serious, ended in ruins and abandonment.

The Dutch, who settled on the east coast near Antongil Bay and Sainte-Marie, died of malaria or were killed by the Malagasy people. <ref>''The North British Review'', Volumes 6 and 7, 1847, page 76.</ref>
In 1646, out of 140 settlers led by John Smart to Saint Augustine Bay (now Toliara), only 63 survived. The others died from disease, hunger—like the fate of the Portuguese in Anosy or were killed by the locals.

In 1649, a second English colony attempt by Robert Hunt at Assada (present-day Nosy Be) also ended with the massacre of the settlers, often by trickery. The Malagasy were very harsh toward Europeans. In 1686, English pirates who came to Nosy Be to for partying were massacred by the locals because of mistreatment by a previous English crew. The only survivor was Robert Everard, who became a slave to a local king. He only gained his freedom when he was sold to an Arab trader, and then resold to an Englishman in Muscat after spending two years on the island.<ref>Tyson, Peter. ''Madagascar: The Eighth Continent – Life, Death and Discovery in a Lost World''. Chalfont St Peter: Bradt Travel Guides, 2013, pp. 43–44, 87.</ref><ref>Royal Anthropological Institute. ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute'', vol. 12, 1882, p. 482.</ref><ref>''The New American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge'', vol. 11, 1858, p. 27.</ref>


The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century.<ref name="LOC" /> From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the [[Atlantic slave trade|trans-Atlantic slave trade]]. The small island of [[Nosy Boraha]] (Île Sainte-Marie) off the northeastern coast of Madagascar is believed to be where the English pirate [[Henry Every]] founded his kingdom and reigned as Pirate King or Emperor. <ref>Jan Rogozinski, Honor among thieves: Captain Kidd, Henry Every, and the Pirate Democracy in the Indian Ocean, p.80</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digitalcollections.wesleyan.edu/object/ir-1086 |title=Every Kidd Has His Day: A Story of How Pirates Forced the English to Reevaluate Their Foreign Policy in the Indian Ocean (1690-1700) |access-date= |author=Brewer, Benjamin Heymann |date=2010-04-15 |publisher= |website=digitalcollections.wesleyan.edu |page=45}}</ref> [[Antsiranana Bay]] (Diego Suarez Bay) in northern Madagascar is rumored to be the site where the French pirate Misson founded his legendary pirate utopia, [[Libertalia]]. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Pirates & Privateers - Captain Misson & Libertalia |url=http://www.cindyvallar.com/Misson.html |website=www.cindyvallar.com |access-date=}}</ref> Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them [[Robert Drury (sailor)|Robert Drury]], whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.<ref>Kent (1976), pp.&nbsp;65–71</ref> European accounts until the early 20th century [[Jews in Madagascar#The "Jewish thesis"|identified Malagasy people as being of Jewish origin]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jennings |first=Eric T. |date=2017 |title=Perspectives on French Colonial Madagascar |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8 |journal=SpringerLink |language=en |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8 |isbn=978-1-137-59690-1 |access-date=6 March 2024 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427035701/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/madg_1/hd_madg_1.htm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110624105133/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/madg_1/hd_madg_1.htm |archive-date = 24 June 2011 |url-status=live |title=Kingdoms of Madagascar: Maroserana and Merina |date = October 2003 |publisher=Metmuseum.org |access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref> Among these were the [[Betsimisaraka people|Betsimisaraka]] alliance of the eastern coast and the [[Sakalava]] chiefdoms of [[Menabe]] and [[Boina Kingdom|Boina]] on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the [[Rova of Antananarivo|royal palace]] of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.<ref name="Ogot">Ogot (1992), p. 418</ref>