Editing Māori culture (section)

=== European colonisation from c. 1800 AD ===
Māori had encounters with European explorers from ships captained by [[Abel Tasman]] in 1642, [[James Cook]] three times between 1769 and 1777, [[Jean-François de Surville]] in 1769 and [[Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne|Marian du Fresne]] in 1772 which included violent encounters and also trade and exchange.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |first1=Vincent |last1=O'Malley |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/973833840 |title=The Treaty of Waitangi Companion : Maori and Pakeha from Tasman to Today. |last2=Stirling |first2=Bruce |last3=Penetito |first3=Wally |date=2014 |publisher=Auckland University Press |isbn=978-1-86940-681-3 |oclc=973833840}}</ref> Māori learnt of firearms during these encounters; it is believed the first firearms were acquired by [[Bay of Islands]] Māori around 1806.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Mikaere |first=Buddy |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/779490407 |title=Huia histories of Māori : ngā tāhuhu kōrero |date=2012 |publisher=Huia |others=Danny Keenan |isbn=978-1-77550-009-4 |location=Wellington, N.Z. |chapter=Musket Wars, Migrations, New Tribal Alignments |oclc=779490407}}</ref>

After the European explorers, encounters at the turn of the century in Aotearoa were with whaling ships from America, France, Norway, Spain, and the British corporation the [[East India Company]] who visited regularly, setting conditions for a period of trade.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0143019457 |edition=2004 revised |pages=78–100}}</ref> Māori travelled overseas from the late 1790s with chiefs going to Sydney 'in search of bartering opportunities', and some working on various types of ships travelling to Britain, Australia and America.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019 |title=Māori explore the world |language=en-NZ |work=NZ History |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/encounters/maori-encountering-world |access-date=2023-02-09}}</ref>{{Sfn|O'Malley|Stirling|Penetito|2014|p=19}}<ref name=":6" /> Small numbers of European whalers, sealers, traders, escaped convicts from Australia and runaway sailors established themselves especially in [[Northland Region|Northland]] and very south of New Zealand with the first Pākehā settlement at [[Doubtful Sound / Patea|Doubtful Sound Patea]] in 1792.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rewi |first=Poia |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/779490407 |title=Huia histories of Māori : ngā tāhuhu kōrero |date=2012 |publisher=Huia |others=Danny Keenan |isbn=978-1-77550-009-4 |location=Wellington, N.Z. |chapter=An Active and Functioning Language |oclc=779490407}}</ref> The first [[Christian mission]]s clustered in the Bay of Islands: with [[Samuel Marsden]], the senior [[Church of England]] chaplain in [[New South Wales]] fostering the foundation of the first [[mission station]] in Aotearoa in 1814–15.{{sfn|O'Malley|2012|page= 220}}<ref name=":7" /><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Marshall
 |first1               = Thomas William M
 |year                 = 1863
 |chapter              = Missions in the Antipodes
 |title                = Christian, Missions: Their Agents, and Their Results
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=mbz_EZtDrGkC
 |volume               = 1
 |edition              = 2
 |location             = London
 |publisher            = Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green
 |page                 = 424
 |access-date          = 16 February 2023
 |quote                = The mission of New Zealand was founded by Mr. Marsden in 1814, after unsuccessful attempts by others in 1800, and 1807.
}} 
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Yates
 |first1               = Timothy
 |author-link1         = Timothy Yeats
 |year                 = 2013
 |chapter              = Maori and Missionaries: Early CMS Interaction, 1814–1823
 |title                = The Conversion of the Maori: Years of Religious and Social Change, 1814–1842
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=_-wW8a3_ibwC
 |series               = Studies in the History of Christian Missions
 |location             = Grand Rapids, Michigan
 |publisher            = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
 |page                 = 22
 |isbn                 = 9780802869456
 |access-date          = 16 February 2023
 |quote                = Marsden had purchased 200 acres for the mission in exchange for twelve axe heads [...]. By the time of the purchase (13 February 1815) [...].
}} 
</ref>
Marsden's party introduced horses and cattle.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = McNab
 |first1               = Robert
 |author-link1         = Robert McNab
 |year                 = 1914
 |title                = From Tasman to Marsden: A History of Northern New Zealand from 1642 to 1818
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8QxAQAAMAAJ
 |publisher            = J. Wilkie
 |page                 = 171
 |access-date          = 16 February 2023
 |quote                = Of live stock, there was on board one entire horse and two mares, one bull and two cows [...].
}} 
</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last=Kingi |first=Tanira |date=24 Nov 2008 |title=Changes to Māori agriculture |language=en-NZ |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/ahuwhenua-maori-land-and-agriculture/page-1 |access-date=2023-02-09}}</ref>

With trade and travel Māori shifted to intensive horticulture and pastoral agriculture and as early as 1803 Maori were trading goods such as potatoes, pigs and maize. Māori invested in ploughs, mills, carts, and ships to transport their goods.<ref name=":8" /> The first Māori water-powered mill was built at Aotea, [[Raglan, New Zealand|Raglan Harbour]] in 1846<ref>
{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvZyAAAAMAAJ |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End |publisher=Penguin |year=1990 |isbn=9780140132403 |publication-date=1990 |page=101 |quote=The first Maori water-powered mill was built at Aotea in 1846. |author-link1=Ranginui Walker |access-date=26 February 2022}} 
</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NZ History of Wheat Milling {{!}} NZFMA |url=https://flourinfo.co.nz/learn/nz-history-wheat-milling |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=flourinfo.co.nz}}</ref> and many more had been built by 1860.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Journal of the Polynesian Society: Maori Flour Mills Of The Auckland Province, 1846–1860, By R. P. Hargreaves, P 227-232 |url=https://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_70_1961/Volume_70,_No._2/Maori_flour_mills_of_the_Auckland_Province,_1846-1860,_by_R._P._Hargreaves,_p_227-232 |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=www.jps.auckland.ac.nz}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0143019457 |edition=2004 revised |pages=99–101}}</ref>

Early industry by Māori was in part driven by the desire to trade for firearms.<ref name=":7" /> The [[Musket Wars]] (of 1807–1837) significantly altered intertribal conflict and there was seen a dramatic increase in casualties with many thousands of Māori people killed, some estimates over 60,000.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0143019457 |edition=2004 revised |pages=81}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Taonga |first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu |title=Musket wars |language=en |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/musket-wars |access-date=2023-02-09}}</ref>

Populations of Māori to Europeans changed greatly during the 1800s. [[Henry Williams (missionary)|Henry Williams]] estimated in 1839 only a 1100 Europeans in the North Island, with 200 of them missionaries, and a total of about 500–600 Europeans in the [[Bay of Islands]].{{sfn|O'Malley|2012|page=101}} The northern Māori population at the time has been estimated at 30,000 to 40,000, down from about 100,000 fifty years before.<ref name=":1" /> This drop in population was mostly due to the introduction of European diseases ([[measles]] and [[influenza]]) and to the Musket Wars.<ref>{{Cite web | url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/171949 | title= 2. – Taupori Māori – Māori population change – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand | publisher= New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu Taonga | website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] | access-date= 2019-01-11 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Pākehā population doubled in the 1850s, surpassing the Māori population by the late 1860s, 1896 Māori population was about 40,000 and Pākehā was 700,000.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0143019457 |edition=2004 revised |pages=98}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Māori and European population numbers, 1838–1901 |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/photo/maori-and-european-population-numbers-1838%E2%80%931901 |website=NZ History}}</ref>

Alcohol was not present in Māori culture before European contact. Many Māori supported [[Henry Williams (missionary)|Henry Williams]] who opposed "the activities of grog-sellers, gun-runners and other irreligious Europeans in the Bay of Islands". The mission at "[[Paihia]], directly opposite the notoriously lawless settlement of [[Kororāreka]] (later Russell), [was set up] to contrast Christianity with the decadent forms of European life".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lineham |first1=Peter J. |title=Missions and missionaries – First years of the CMS mission |website=[[Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/missions-and-missionaries/page-3 |access-date=July 24, 2021}}</ref>

European settlers brought their culture about sexuality and sexual violence to New Zealand. Sex within Māori culture was an open discussion, people chose their own sexual partners and 'accepted that sex before marriage occurred'.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Else |first=Anne |date=20 Jun 2018 |title=Gender inequalities – Sexuality' |language=en-NZ |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/gender-inequalities/page-2 |access-date=2023-02-06}}</ref> In Māori society assault on a woman was a serious offence<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mikaere |first=Ani |url= |title=Mana wahine reader. Volume II, A collection of writings 1999–2019 |date=2019 |others=Leonie Pihama, Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Naomi Simmonds, Joeliee Seed-Pihama, Kirsten Gabel | publisher = Te Kotahi Research Institute |isbn=978-0-9951290-0-9 |location=Hamilton, Aotearoa/New Zealand |chapter=Colonisation and the Imposition of Patriarchy |oclc=1305027496}}</ref> different to English laws. Before 1896 under English law the age of consent was 12 years old and incest was not considered a crime. European settlers had double standards of it being more acceptable for men to have sex outside of marriage, women were blamed for prostitution and rape was rarely prosecuted.<ref name=":5" /> The [[Victorian era|Victorian]] ethos that came with colonisation undermined the role of women in Māori society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yates-Smith |first=Aroha |url= |title=Mana wahine reader. Volume II, A collection of writings 1999–2019 |date=2019 |others=Leonie Pihama, Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Naomi Simmonds, Joeliee Seed-Pihama, Kirsten Gabel | publisher = Te Kotahi Research Institute |isbn=978-0-9951290-0-9 |location=Hamilton, Aotearoa/New Zealand |chapter=Reclaiming the Ancient Feminine in Māori Society |oclc=1305027496}}</ref>

Many Māori started adopting the Christian faith from 1830s onwards, over time creating a uniquely Māori Christianity.<ref name=":6" /> Burial practices changed to incorporate aspects of [[Christianity]]. Bodies were usually buried in the ground by the mid-1840s, although sometimes coffins decorated with Māori motifs were used, suspended in trees or on poles as drawn by [[Joel Samuel Polack|J. Polack]]. These were highly {{lang|mi|tapu}}.{{sfn|Moon|2014|page=147}}{{sfn|Moon|2014|page=195}}

[[Slaves]] ({{lang|mi|taurekareka}} or {{lang|mi|mōkai}}) were members of rival tribes who had been taken prisoner during warfare and were made to work on non-{{lang|mi|tapu}} activities.{{sfn|O'Malley|2012|page= 127}} The term {{lang|mi|taurekareka}} was also used to denote something abhorrent and signifies the complete loss of {{lang|mi|mana}} of slaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/turanga-i-te-hapori-status-in-maori-society/page-1|title=1. – Tūranga i te hapori – status in Māori society – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand |publisher= New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu Taonga|website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=2019-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|website=maoridictionary.co.nz |url=https://maoridictionary.co.nz/search?idiom=&phrase=&proverb=&loan=&histLoanWords=&keywords=taurekareka |title=taurekareka – Māori Dictionary|access-date=2019-01-13}}</ref> During the period of the [[Musket Wars]] the number of slaves taken as prisoners increased immensely and became an important part of some tribes' social structure.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Petrie|first=H.|title=Outcasts of the Gods. The struggle over slavery in Maori Society NZ |chapter= 9|year=2015|publisher=Auckland University Press |location=Auckland}}</ref>

Māori hapū of the north and Britain proclaimed the [[Sovereignty|sovereign independence]] of New Zealand in 1835 with the signing of [[Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand|He Whakaputanga]] (The Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand). A follow-up to this was the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] that was first signed in 1840, in part that the Queen of England could control her 'lawless subjects'.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mutu |first=Margaret |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/779490407 |title=Huia histories of Māori : ngā tāhuhu kōrero |date=2012 |publisher=Huia |others=Danny Keenan |isbn=978-1-77550-009-4 |location=Wellington, N.Z. |pages=98 |chapter=Custom Law and the Advent of New Pākehā Settlers |oclc=779490407}}</ref> New Zealand was proclaimed a [[Colony of New Zealand|British colony]] in 1841, and the [[New Zealand Parliament]] was established in 1852. Māori had no representation in the early years (1854–[[First Māori elections|1868]]) of the New Zealand Parliament. Votes for the members of Parliament required individual land-ownership so Māori were not able to vote as they owned land collectively. [[Ranginui Walker]] states that this "institutionalisation of racism at the inception of democracy in New Zealand was the root cause of the conflict between Māori and Pākehā in the North Island and the colonial spoliation which followed".<ref>{{cite book |last1= Walker |first1= Ranginui |title= Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date= 1990 |publisher= Penguin |isbn= 0143019457 |pages= 85 and 111 |edition= 2004 revised}}</ref>

Māori customs, rules and values, known as ''tikanga,'' were not recognised in parliament and there was an assumption that European values and traditions were superior. The "judiciary simply denied that tikanga existed, the legislative suppressed aspects of tikanga, and together they altered the social structures of Māori in which tikanga existed, the overall effect being the social, economic, spiritual and political degradation of Māori society. To this day Māori society has still not recovered from this suppression of tikanga."<ref>{{cite web |last1= Gallagher |first1= Timoti |title= Tikanga Māori Pre-1840 |url= http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bid001Kahu-t1-g1-t1.html |website= Te Kāhui Kura Māori, Volume 0, Issue 1 |publisher=University of Wellington |access-date=July 24, 2021}}</ref>

Land-ownership issues became some of the most transformative influences of the 19th century. In Māori culture collective ownership was the norm: Māori people hold a deep respect for, spiritual connection to, and responsibility for the land as ''[[tangata whenua]]'' (people of the land).<ref name="otago.ac.nz" /> As the government sought land for newly arriving immigrants, laws like the [[Native Lands Act 1865]] changed the relationship Māori had with land. In 1870 [[Minister of Justice (New Zealand)|Justice Minister]] [[Henry Sewell]] (in office 1870–1871) described the aims of the Native Land Court as "to bring the great bulk of the lands in the Northern Island [...] within the reach of colonisation" and "the detribalisation of the Māori – to destroy, if it were possible, the principle of communism upon which their social system is based and which stands as a barrier in the way of all attempts to amalgamate the Māori race into our social and political system."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taonui |first1=Rāwiri |title=Te ture – Māori and legislation – The Native Land Court |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/te-ture-maori-and-legislation/page-3 |website=[[Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date= 26 February 2021 | quote = The Native Lands Acts 1862 and 1865 established the Native Land Court. This freed up more land for purchase by settlers as it individualised Māori land title. Justice minister Henry Sewell described the aims of the court as, 'to bring the great bulk of the lands in the Northern Island … within the reach of colonisation' and 'the detribalisation of the Māori – to destroy, if it were possible, the principle of communism upon which their social system is based and which stands as a barrier in the way of all attempts to amalgamate the Māori race into our social and political system.'}}</ref> By the end of the 19th century these goals were largely met – to the detriment of Māori culture.