Editing Lviv (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Lviv|Timeline of Lviv}}

{{Quote box
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| title = Historical affiliations
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| quote ={{flagicon image|Alex_K_Halych-Volhynia-flag.svg}} [[Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia]] c. 1250–1340<br />
{{flagicon image|Alex_K_Kingdom_of_Poland-flag.svg}} [[Kingdom of Poland]] 1340–1569<br />
{{flagicon image|Chorągiew_królewska_króla_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg}} [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] 1569–1772<br />
{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg}} [[Austrian Empire]]/[[Austro-Hungarian Empire|A-H Empire]] 1772–1914<br />
{{flagicon image|Flag_of_Russia.svg}} [[Russian Empire]] 1914–1915 (''[[Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia (1914–1915)|occupation]]'')<br />
{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg}} [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] 1915–1918<br />
{{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]] 1918<br />
{{flagicon|POL}} [[Second Polish Republic|Poland (Second Republic)]] 1918–1939<br />
{{flag|Soviet Union|1936}} ([[Ukrainian SSR]]) 1939–1941 (''[[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|occupation]]'')<br />
{{flag|Nazi Germany}} 1941–1944 (''[[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|occupation]]'')<br />
{{flag|Soviet Union}} ([[Ukrainian SSR]]) 1944–1991<br />
{{flag|Ukraine}} 1991–''present''
}}

[[Archaeologists]] have demonstrated that the Lviv area was settled by the fifth century,<ref>Я. Ісаєвич, М. Литвин, Ф. Стеблій / Iсторія Львова. У трьох томах (History of Lviv in Three Volumes). Львів : Центр Європи, 2006. – Т. 1, p7. {{ISBN|978-966-7022-59-4}}.</ref> with the gord at [[:uk:Вулиця Чернеча Гора|Chernecha Hora]]-Voznesensk Street in [[Lychakivskyi District]] attributed to [[White Croats]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hrytsak |first=Yaroslav |author-link=Yaroslav Hrytsak |date=2000 |title=Lviv: A Multicultural History through the Centuries |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41036810 |journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |volume=24 |pages=48 |jstor=41036810 |access-date=18 June 2022 |archive-date=28 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028100216/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41036810 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Korčinskij |first=Orest |chapter=Bijeli Hrvati i problem formiranja države u Prikarpatju |trans-chapter=Eastern Croats and the problem of forming the state in Prykarpattia |title=Bijeli Hrvati I |trans-title=White Croats I |editor-last=Nosić |editor-first=Milan |language=hr |publisher=Maveda |year=2006a |isbn=953-7029-04-2 |pages=37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Korčinskij |first=Orest |chapter=Stiljski grad |trans-chapter=City of Stiljsko |title=Bijeli Hrvati I |trans-title=White Croats I |editor-last=Nosić |editor-first=Milan |language=hr |publisher=Maveda |year=2006b |isbn=953-7029-04-2 |pages=68–71}}</ref><ref name="Hupalo2014">{{cite book |last=Hupalo |first=Vira |date=2014 |title=Звенигородська земля у XI-XIII століттях (соціоісторична реко-нструкція) |url=https://chtyvo.org.ua/authors/Hupalo_Vira/Zvenyhorod_i_Zvenyhorodska_zemlia_u_XI-XIII_stolittiakh_sotsioistorychna_rekonstruktsiia/ |location=Lviv |publisher=Krypiakevych Institute of Ukrainian Studies of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |language=uk |pages=77 |isbn=978-966-02-7484-6 |access-date=18 June 2022 |archive-date=28 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028094159/https://chtyvo.org.ua/authors/Hupalo_Vira/Zvenyhorod_i_Zvenyhorodska_zemlia_u_XI-XIII_stolittiakh_sotsioistorychna_rekonstruktsiia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The city of Lviv was founded in 1250 by King [[Daniel of Galicia]] (1201–1264) in the [[Principality of Halych]] of [[Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia|Kingdom of Ruthenia]]. It was named in honor of his son [[Lev I of Galicia|Lev]]<ref>[[Orest Subtelny]]. (1988) ''Ukraine: A History''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, p62</ref> as '''Lvihorod'''<ref>Gloger, Zygmunt. ''[http://literat.ug.edu.pl/glogre/0037.htm Voivodeship of Ruthenia. Historic geography of old Polish lands (Województwo Ruskie. Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180515232827/http://literat.ug.edu.pl/glogre/0037.htm |date=15 May 2018}}''. Library of Polish Literature POWRÓT.</ref><ref>Siedina, Giovanna. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jU2DBgAAQBAJ&dq=lwihorod&pg=PA53 Latinitas in the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Its Impact on the Development of Identities] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805101719/https://books.google.com/books?id=jU2DBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=lwihorod&source=bl&ots=Fxu1bIZy_b&sig=IzMYW_suchy1j12zkPTW06A_pWQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiEzqDVzprbAhUkq1kKHZJ_DOsQ6AEISTAI#v=onepage&q=lwihorod&f=false |date=5 August 2020}}''. [[Firenze University Press]]. 2014. {{ISBN|9788866556749}}</ref><ref>Schnayder, J. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uLwDAAAAYAAJ&dq=lwihorod&pg=RA2-PA155 Biblioteka naukowego Zakładu imienia Ossolińskich] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805084345/https://books.google.com/books?id=uLwDAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA155&lpg=RA2-PA155&dq=lwihorod&source=bl&ots=UbOsoo5O8V&sig=6dkuIXJl_WJ73Nvyf5Yv5BLmf7Y&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiEzqDVzprbAhUkq1kKHZJ_DOsQ6AEIRTAH#v=onepage&q=lwihorod&f=false |date=5 August 2020}}''. [[Harvard University]]. 1843</ref> which is consistent with names of other Ukrainian cities, such as [[Myrhorod]], [[Sharhorod]], [[Novhorod-Siverskyi|Novhorod]], [[Bilhorod]], [[Horodyshche]], and [[Horodok, Lviv Oblast|Horodok]].

[[File:Lev Danylovich of Halych.PNG|thumb|upright|A 17th century portrait depicting [[Lev I of Galicia|Knyaz Lev of Galicia-Volhynia]] with the city of Lviv in the background]]

Earlier there was a settlement in the form of a borough with a characteristic layout element—an elongated market square. Daniel's foundation of the stronghold was its next reconstruction after the [[Batu Khan]] invasion of 1240.<ref>Vołodymyr Vujcyk, ''Derżavnyj Istoryczno-Architekturnyj Zapovidnyk u L’vovi'', Lviv 1991, p. 9, [w:] Łukasz Walczy, ''Początki Lwowa w świetle najnowszych badań'', [w:] ''Lwów wśród nas'', pt. 2, 2006, p. 20–21.</ref><ref>Jan Buraczyński, ''Roztocze – dzieje osadnictwa'', Lublin 2008, p. 73.</ref>

Lviv was [[Mongol invasion of Europe|invaded]] by the [[Mongols]] in 1261.<ref name="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon">''Meyers Konversations-Lexikon''. 6th edition, vol. 12, Leipzig and Vienna 1908, p. 397-398.</ref> Various sources relate the events, which range from the destruction of the castle to a complete razing of the town. All sources agree that it was on the orders of the Mongol general [[Boroldai|Burundai]]. The [[Shevchenko Scientific Society]] says that Burundai issued the order to raze the city. The [[Galician-Volhynian Chronicle|Galician-Volhynian chronicle]] states that in 1261 "Said Buronda to Vasylko: 'Since you are at peace with me then raze all your castles'".<ref name=SSS1>{{cite book |title=Naukove tovarystvo im. Shevchenka – Lviv: a symposium on its 700th anniversary |year=1962 |publisher=Shevchenko Scientific Society (U.S.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iT1pAAAAMAAJ&q=lviv+Burundai |editor=Vasylʹ Mudryĭ |access-date=29 January 2011 |quote=on the occasion of the demand of the baskak of the Tatars, Burundai, that the prince Vasylko and Lev raze their cities said Buronda to Vasylko: 'Since you are at peace with me then raze all your castles' |page=58 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002120639/https://books.google.com/books?id=iT1pAAAAMAAJ&q=lviv+Burundai |url-status=live }}</ref> Basil Dmytryshyn states that the order was implied to be the fortifications as a whole: "If you wish to have peace with me, then destroy [all fortifications of] your towns".<ref name=Dmy1>{{cite book |title=Medieval Russia: a source book, 850-170 |year=1991 |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |isbn=978-0-03-033422-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrtoAAAAMAAJ&q=lvov+Burundai |author=Basil Dmytryshyn |access-date=29 January 2011 |page=173 |archive-date=15 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315054833/https://books.google.com/books?id=WrtoAAAAMAAJ&q=lvov+Burundai |url-status=live }}</ref>

After Daniel's death, King Lev rebuilt the town around 1270, choosing Lviv as his residence,<ref name="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" /> and made it the capital of Galicia-Volhynia.<ref>B.V. Melnyk, Vulytsiamy starovynnoho Lvova, Vyd-vo "Svit" (Old Lviv Streets), 2001, {{ISBN|966-603-048-9}}</ref> Around 1280 [[Armenians]] lived in [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] and were mainly based in Lviv where they had their own [[archbishop]].<ref>''Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Wissenschaft und Künste'', edited by Johann Samuel Ersch and Johann Gottfried Gruber. Vol. 5, Leipzig 1820, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UbEqAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA358 p. 358, footnote 18 (in German).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102033537/https://books.google.com/books?id=UbEqAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA358 |date=2 January 2016 }}</ref>

In the 13th and early 14th centuries, Lviv was largely a wooden city, except for its several [[Galician school (architecture)|Galician-style]] stone churches. Some of them, like the Church of Saint Nicholas, have survived, although in a thoroughly rebuilt form.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhuk |first1=Ihor |title=The Architecture of Lviv from the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Centuries |journal=[[Harvard Ukrainian Studies]] |date=2000 |volume=24 |page=98 |publisher=Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute}}</ref> The town was inherited by the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] in 1340 and ruled by [[voivode]] [[Dmytro Dedko]], the favourite of the Lithuanian prince [[Liubartas]], until 1349.<ref name=EOMADobson1>{{cite book |editor=André Vauchez |editor2=Michael Lapidge |editor3=Richard Barrie Dobson |translator=Adrian Walford |title=Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages |year=2000 |publisher=Routledge |location=Chicago |isbn=1-57958-282-6 |page=879}}</ref>

The city and region was a destination of 50,000 [[Armenians]] fleeing from the [[Seljuk Empire|Saljuq]] and Mongol invasions of Armenia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.armenica.org/cgi-bin/armenica.cgi?=1=1=172=31==1=3=A |title=Epilogue – History of Armenia |access-date=31 July 2020 |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231171629/http://www.armenica.org/cgi-bin/armenica.cgi?=1=1=172=31==1=3=A |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Galicia–Volhynia Wars===
During the [[Galicia–Volhynia Wars|wars over the succession of Galicia-Volhynia Principality]] in 1339 King [[Casimir III the Great|Casimir III of Poland]] undertook an expedition and conquered Lviv in 1340, burning down the [[Lviv High Castle|old princely castle]].<ref name="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" /> Poland ultimately gained control over Lviv and the adjacent region in 1349. From then on the population was subjected to attempts to both [[Polonization|Polonize]] and [[Catholicisation|Catholicize]] the population.<ref>Jacob Caro: ''Geschichte Polens''. Vol. 2, Gotha 1863, p. 286 (in German, [https://books.google.com/books?id=j2kPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA286 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102033537/https://books.google.com/books?id=j2kPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA286 |date=2 January 2016 }})</ref> The [[Lithuanians]] ravaged Lviv land in 1351 during the [[Galicia-Volhynia Wars|Halych-Volhyn Wars]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Peter |title=The Mongols and the West: 1221–1410 |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-582-36896-5 |page=210}}</ref> with Lviv being plundered and destroyed by duke [[Liubartas]] in 1353.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wyrozumski |first1=Jerzy |title=Wielka Historia Polski. Vol. II. Dzieje Polski Piastowskiej: VIII w. - 1370 |date=1999 |publisher=FOGRA |isbn=83-85719-38-5 |page=327 |language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barański |first1=Marek Kazimierz |title=Dynastia Piastów w Polsce |date=2006 |publisher=[[Polish Scientific Publishers|PWN]] |isbn=83-01-14578-1 |page=502 |language=pl}}</ref>

Casimir built a new city center (or founded a new town) in a basin, surrounded it by walls, and replaced the wooden palace by masonry castle – one of the two built by him.<ref name="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" /><ref name="Piechotka" /><ref name="Ashmore">{{cite book |editor1-last=Ashmore |editor1-first=Harry S. |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=1961 |page=509 |chapter=Lviv}}</ref> The old (Ruthenian) settlement, after it had been rebuilt, became known as the Krakovian Suburb in reference to the city of [[Kraków]].<ref name="Piechotka">{{cite book |last1=Piechotka |first1=Maria |last2=Piechotka |first2=Kazimierz |editor1-last=Paluch |editor1-first=Andrzej K. |editor2-last=Kapralski |editor2-first=Sławomir |title=The Jews of Poland, Vol. 2 |date=1999 |publisher=Judaica Foundation, Center Jewish Culture |isbn=978-8390771519 |page=252 |chapter=The Synagogues of Lwow}}</ref>

===Kingdom of Poland===
[[File:Lviv High Castle (Engraving).jpg|thumb|[[Lviv High Castle|Hight Castle]] first built in 1250 by [[Leo I of Halych]] and rebuilt in 1362 by [[Casimir III of Poland]] (engraving by A. Gogenberg, 17th century)]]

In 1349, the [[Kingdom of Ruthenia]] with its capital Lviv was annexed by the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland]]. The kingdom was transformed into the Ruthenian domain of the Crown with Lwów as the capital. On 17 June 1356 King [[Casimir III the Great]] moved the city to a new location and granted it [[Magdeburg rights]], which implied that all city matters were to be resolved by a council elected by the wealthy citizens. In 1362, the [[Lviv High Castle|High Castle]] was completely rebuilt with stone replacing the previous wood. In 1358, the city became a seat of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lviv|Roman Catholic Archdiocese]], which initiated the spread of [[Latin Church]] onto the Ruthenian lands.

After Casimir had died in 1370, he was succeeded as king of Poland by his nephew, King [[Louis I of Hungary]], who in 1372 put Lwów together with the region of [[Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia]] under the administration of his relative [[Vladislaus II of Opole]], Duke of Opole.<ref name="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" /> When in 1387 Władysław retreated from the post of its governor, Galicia-Volhynia became occupied by [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], but soon [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]], the youngest daughter of Louis, and also the ruler of Poland and wife of King of Poland [[Władysław II Jagiełło]], unified it directly with the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland]].<ref name="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" />

The city's prosperity during the following centuries is owed to the trade privileges granted to it by Casimir, Queen [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]], and the subsequent Polish monarchs.<ref name="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" /> Germans, Poles and Czechs formed the largest groups of newcomers. Most of the settlers were [[Polonization|polonised]] by the end of the 15th century, and the city became a Polish island surrounded by the Ruthenian [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] population.<ref>Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki. ''A Concise History of Poland''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. 2006. p. 32.</ref> In 1356, the Armenian diocese was founded centered at the [[Armenian Cathedral of Lviv|Armenian Cathedral]]. Lwów was one of two main cultural and religious centers of [[Armenians in Poland]] alongside [[Kamieniec Podolski]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stopka|first=Krzysztof|year=2000|title=Ormianie w Polsce dawnej i dzisiejszej|language=pl|location=Kraków|publisher=Księgarnia Akademicka|pages=19, 37|isbn=83-7188-325-0}}</ref> In the [[early modern period]], it also became one of the largest concentrations of [[Scots in Poland|Scots]] and [[Italians]] in Poland.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Feduszka|first=Jacek|year=2009|title=Szkoci i Anglicy w Zamościu w XVI-XVIII wieku|magazine=Czasy Nowożytne|language=pl|publisher=Zarząd Główny Polskiego Towarzystwa Historycznego|volume=22|page=53|issn=1428-8982}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Tygielski|first=Wojciech|editor-last1=Kopczyński|editor-first1=Michał|editor-last2=Tygielski|editor-first2=Wojciech|year=2010|title=Pod wspólnym niebem. Narody dawnej Rzeczypospolitej|language=pl|location=Warszawa|publisher=Muzeum Historii Polski, Bellona|chapter=Włosi|page=190|isbn=978-83-11-11724-2}}</ref>

In 1412, the local archdiocese has developed into the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lviv|Roman Catholic Metropolis]], which since 1375 as diocese had been in [[Halych]].<ref name="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" /> The new metropolis included regional diocese in Lwów, [[Przemyśl]], [[Chełm]], [[Volodymyr-Volynskyi|Włodzimierz]], [[Lutsk|Łuck]], [[Kamianets-Podilskyi|Kamieniec]], as well as [[Siret]] and [[Kyiv|Kijów]] (see [[Old Cathedral of St. Sophia, Kyiv]]). The first Catholic Archbishop who resided in Lwów was Jan Rzeszowski.

[[File:Львов 1618 АГогенберг.jpg|thumb|Lwów in a lithograph from 1618]]
In 1434, the Ruthenian domain of the Crown was transformed into the [[Ruthenian Voivodeship]]. In 1444, the city was granted the [[staple right]], which resulted in its growing prosperity and wealth, as it became one of the major trading centres on the merchant routes between [[Central Europe]] and [[Black Sea]] region. It was also transformed into one of the main fortresses of the kingdom. As one of the largest and most influential [[royal city|royal cities]] of Poland, it enjoyed voting rights in the [[Royal elections in Poland]], alongside other major cities such as [[Kraków]], [[Poznań]], [[Warsaw]] or [[Gdańsk]].<ref>''Polska Encyklopedia Szlachecka'', t. I, Warsaw 1935, p. 42</ref> During the 17th century, it was the second largest city of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], with a population of about 30,000.

In 1572, one of the first publishers of books in what is now Ukraine, [[Ivan Fyodorov (printer)|Ivan Fedorov]], a graduate of the [[Jagiellonian University|University of Kraków]], settled here for a brief period. The city became a significant centre for [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] with the establishment of an Orthodox brotherhood, a Greek-Slavonic school, and a printer which published the first full versions of the Bible in [[Church Slavonic]] in 1580. A [[List of Jesuit educational institutions in the Philippines|Jesuit Collegium]] was founded in 1608, and on 20 January 1661 King [[John II Casimir]] of Poland issued a decree granting it "the honour of the academy and the title of the university".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.manresa-sj.org/stamps/2_Ukraine.htm |title=Jesuits in Ukraine |website=www.manresa-sj.org |access-date=7 March 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307223326/https://www.manresa-sj.org/stamps/2_Ukraine.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The 17th century brought invading armies of [[Swedish Empire|Swedes]], [[Hungary|Hungarians]],<ref>Cathal J. Nolan. ''Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopaedia of Global Warfare and Civilization''. ABC-CLIO. 2008. pp. 332, 368.</ref><ref name="Jaques">Tony Jaques. ''Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-First Century'', Vol. 3. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2007. pp. 608, 895, 951</ref> [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]],<ref>Francis Ludwig Carsten. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: The Ascendancy of France, 1648–88''. Cambridge University Press. 1961. p. 512.</ref><ref>Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki. ''A Concise History of Poland''. Cambridge University Press. 2001. p. 81. Cambridge University Press. 2001. p. 81.</ref> [[Tsardom of Russia|Russians]] and [[Zaporozhian Cossacks|Cossacks]]<ref name="Jaques" /> to its gates. In 1648 an army of [[Zaporozhian Cossacks|Cossacks]] and [[Crimean Tatars]] besieged the town. They captured the [[Lviv High Castle|High Castle]], murdering its defenders. The city itself was not sacked due to the fact that the leader of the revolution [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]] accepted a ransom of 250,000 ducats, and the Cossacks marched north-west towards [[Zamość]]. It was one of two major cities in Poland which was not captured during the so-called [[Deluge (history)|''Deluge'']]: the other one was [[Gdańsk]].{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

[[File:Sluby Jana Kazimierza 2.jpg|thumb|[[King Jan Kazimierz of Poland|John II Casimir]], [[King of Poland]], pledging an [[Lwów Oath|oath]] at Lwów's [[Latin Cathedral, Lviv|Latin Cathedral]], by painter [[Jan Matejko]]. Collection of the [[National Museum in Wrocław|Wrocław Museum]].]]
At that time, Lwów witnessed a historic scene, as here King [[John II Casimir Vasa|John II Casimir]] made his famous [[Lwów Oath]]. On 1 April 1656, during a holy mass in Lwów's Cathedral conducted by the [[papal legate]] [[Pietro Vidoni]], John Casimir in a grandiose and elaborate ceremony entrusted the Commonwealth under the Blessed Virgin Mary's protection, whom he announced as ''The Queen of the Polish Crown and other of his countries''. He also swore to ''protect the Kingdom's folk from any impositions and unjust bondage''.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Two years later, John Casimir, in honor of the bravery of its residents, declared Lwów to be equal to two historic capitals of the Commonwealth, Kraków and [[Vilnius]].{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} In the same year, 1658, [[Pope Alexander VII]] declared the city to be [[Semper fidelis]], in recognition of its key role in defending Europe and Roman Catholicism from the Ottoman Muslim invasion.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

In 1672 it was surrounded by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] who also failed to conquer it. Three years later, the [[Battle of Lwów (1675)]] took place near the city. Lwów was captured for the first time since the [[Middle Ages]] by a foreign army in 1704 when [[Swedish Army|Swedish troops]] under King [[Charles XII of Sweden|Charles XII]] entered the city after a short siege.<ref>{{cite EB9 |wstitle = Lemberg |volume= XIV |last= |first= |author-link= | page=453 |short=1}}</ref> The [[Great Northern War plague outbreak|plague]] of the early 18th century caused the death of about 10,000 inhabitants (40% of the city's population).<ref>Karl-Erik Frandsen. ''The Last Plague in the Baltic Region, 1709–1713.'' Museum Tuseulanum Press. 2010. p. 20.</ref>

===Habsburg Empire===
[[File:Old map of Lviv (cropped).jpg|thumb|18th century map of Lemberg (Lviv, Lwów)]]
In 1772, following the [[First Partition of Poland]], the region was annexed by the [[Habsburg monarchy]] to the [[Austrian Partition]]. Known in German as ''Lemberg'', the city became the capital of the [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]].<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Lemberg |volume= 16 | pages = 409–410 |short= 1}}</ref> Lemberg grew dramatically during the 19th century, increasing in population from approximately 30,000 at the time of the Austrian annexation in 1772,<ref name="TC">Tertius Chandler. (1987) ''Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: A Historical Census''. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellon Press</ref> to 196,000 by 1910<ref>{{Cite book |title=Prorok we własnym kraju. Iwan Franko i jego Ukraina (1856–1886) |last=Hrytsak |first=Yaroslav |year=2010 |location=Warsaw |pages=151}}</ref> and to 212,000 three years later;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hrytsak |first=Yaroslav |title=Lviv: A Multicultural History through the Centuries |journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |volume=24 |pages=54}}</ref> rapid population growth brought about an increase in urban squalor and [[poverty in Austrian Galicia]].<ref name="New International">[https://books.google.com/books?id=qxooAAAAYAAJ&q=lemberg New International Encyclopedia, Volume 13.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102033537/https://books.google.com/books?id=qxooAAAAYAAJ&dq=105%2C469+Roman+Catholics+population+1910&q=lemberg#v=snippet&q=lemberg&f=false |date=2 January 2016 }} Lemberg 1915, p. 760.</ref> In the late 18th and early 19th centuries a large influx of Austrians and German-speaking Czech bureaucrats gave the city a character that by the 1840s was quite Austrian, in its orderliness and in the appearance and popularity of Austrian coffeehouses.<ref name="multi">Chris Hann, Paul R. Magocsi.(2005). ''Galicia: Multicultured Land.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pg. 193</ref>

During Habsburg rule, Lviv became one of the most important Polish, Ukrainian and Jewish cultural centres. In Lviv, according to the Austrian census of 1910, which listed religion and language, 51% of the city's population was [[Roman Catholics]], 28% Jews, and 19% belonged to the [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church]]. Linguistically, 86% of the city's population used the [[Polish language]] and 11% preferred [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]].<ref name="New International" />

[[File:Lwow Panorama Raclawicka.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Racławice Panorama]] opened in 1894]]
In 1773, the first newspaper in Lemberg, ''Gazette de Leopoli'', began to be published. In 1784, a [[Latin language]] university was opened with lectures in [[German language|German]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and even [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]]; after closing in 1805, it was reopened in 1817. By 1825, German became the sole language of instruction.<ref name="multi" /> [[University of Lviv|Lemberg University]] was opened by [[Maria Theresa]] in 1784. By 1787, her successor [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]] opened "Studium Ruthenum" for students who did not know enough Latin to take regular courses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC |title=The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 |date=2004-07-11 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10586-5 |page=123 |language=en |access-date=11 August 2022 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117115802/https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the 19th century, the Austrian administration attempted to [[Germanisation|Germanise]] the city's educational and governmental institutions. Many cultural organisations which did not have a pro-German orientation were closed. After the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire|revolutions of 1848]], the language of instruction at the university shifted from German to include Ukrainian and Polish. Around that time, a certain [[sociolect]] developed in the city known as the [[Lwów dialect]]. Considered to be a type of Polish dialect, it draws its roots from numerous other languages besides Polish. In 1853, [[kerosene lamp]]s as [[street light]]ing were introduced by [[Ignacy Łukasiewicz]] and Jan Zeh. Then in 1858, these were updated to [[Gas lighting|gas lamps]], and in 1900 to [[Electric light|electric ones]].

[[File:Stanislav Skarbek Theatre in Lviv.jpg|thumb|[[:pl:Stanisław Skarbek (1780–1848)|Stanisław Skarbek]] Theatre in 1900]]

After the so-called "[[Ausgleich]]" of February 1867, the [[Austrian Empire]] was reformed into a dualist [[Austria-Hungary]] and a slow yet steady process of liberalisation of Austrian rule in Galicia started. From 1873, Galicia was ''de facto'' an autonomous province of [[Austria-Hungary]], with Polish and [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] as official languages. [[Germanisation]] was halted and censorship lifted as well. [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] was subject to the Austrian part of the Dual Monarchy, but the [[Diet of Galicia|Galician Sejm]] and provincial administration, both established in Lviv, had extensive privileges and prerogatives, especially in education, culture, and local affairs. In 1894, the [[General National Exhibition in Lviv|General National Exhibition]] was held in Lviv.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://lia.lvivcenter.org/en/storymaps/exhibition-after/ |title=The General Regional Exhibition of Galicia |access-date=22 December 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126151938/https://lia.lvivcenter.org/en/storymaps/exhibition-after/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The city started to grow rapidly, becoming the fourth largest in Austria-Hungary, according to the census of 1910. Many [[Belle Époque]] public edifices and tenement houses were erected, with many of the buildings from the Austrian period, such as the [[Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet]], built in the [[Vienna|Viennese]] neo-Renaissance style.

[[File:Sejm Galicyjski.jpg|thumb|[[Diet of Galicia|The Galician Sejm]] (until 1918), since 1920 the [[Jan Kazimierz University]]]]

At that time, Lviv was home to a number of renowned Polish-language institutions, such as the [[Ossolineum]], with the second-largest collection of Polish books in the world, the [[Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences|Polish Academy of Arts]], the [[National Museum of Poland|National Museum]] (since 1908), the Historical Museum of the City of Lwów (since 1891), the [[Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists]], the [[Polish Historical Society]], [[Lviv University|Lwów University]], with Polish as the official language since 1882, the [[Lwów Scientific Society]], the [[Lviv National Art Gallery|Lwów Art Gallery]], the [[Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet|Polish Theatre]], and the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lviv|Polish Archdiocese]].

Furthermore, Lviv was the centre of a number of Polish independence organisations. In June 1908, [[Józef Piłsudski]], [[Władysław Sikorski]] and [[Kazimierz Sosnkowski]] founded the [[Union of Active Struggle]] in the city. Two years later, the paramilitary organisation, called the [[Riflemen's Association]], was also founded in the city by Polish activists.

At the same time, Lviv became the city where famous Ukrainian writers (such as [[Ivan Franko]], [[Panteleimon Kulish]] and [[Ivan Nechuy-Levytsky]]) published their work. It was a centre of Ukrainian cultural revival. The city also housed the largest and most influential Ukrainian institutions in the world, including the [[Prosvita]] society dedicated to spreading literacy in the Ukrainian language, the [[Shevchenko Scientific Society]], the Dniester Insurance Company and base of the [[Ukrainian cooperative movement]], and it served as the seat of the [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church|Ukrainian Catholic Church]]. However, the Polish-dominated city council blocked Ukrainian attempts to create visible monuments for their own. The most important streets had names referring to Polish history and literature, and only minor roads referred to Ukrainians.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Mick|author-first=Christoph|chapter=Lemberg/Lwów/L'viv - die multiethnische Stadt|editor=Matthias Weber, Burkhard Olschowsky, Ivan Petranský, Attila Pók, Andrzej Przewoźnik|title=Erinnerungsorte in Ostmitteleuropa: Erfahrungen der Vergangenheit und Perspektiven|publisher=Oldenbourg|year= 2011|language=de|pages=127}}</ref>

Lviv was also a major centre of Jewish culture, in particular as a centre of the [[Yiddish language]], and was the home of the world's first Yiddish-language daily newspaper, the ''Lemberger Togblat'', established in 1904.<ref>Paul Robert Magocsi. (2005) Galicia: a Multicultured Land. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp.12–15</ref>

====First World War====
[[File:Lemberg 1915 Mariyska.jpg|thumb|right|Lemberg (Lviv, Lwów) in 1915]]
In the [[Battle of Galicia]] at the early stages of the [[First World War]], Lviv was captured by the [[Imperial Russian Army|Russian army]] in September 1914 following the [[Battle of Gnila Lipa]]. The Lemberg Fortress fell on 3 September. The historian [[Pál Kelemen]] provided a first-hand account of the chaotic evacuation of the city by the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]] and civilians alike.<ref>{{cite web |title=03 September 1914 – The Fall Of Lemberg |url=http://ww1blog.osborneink.com/?p=607 |website=The Great War Blog |date=3 September 2014 |access-date=9 July 2016 |archive-date=6 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806184945/http://ww1blog.osborneink.com/?p=607 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The town was retaken by [[Austria-Hungary]] in June of the following year during the [[Gorlice–Tarnów offensive]]. Lviv and its population, therefore, suffered greatly during the First World War as many of the offensives were fought across its local geography causing significant [[collateral damage]] and disruption.<ref name="PB2">{{cite book |last1=Buttar |first1=Prit |title=Germany Ascendant, The Eastern Front 1915 |date=2017 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=Oxford |isbn=9781472819376 |pages=260–263}}</ref>

===Polish–Ukrainian War===
{{further|Polish–Ukrainian War}}
After the [[Dissolution of Austria-Hungary|collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy]] at the end of the First World War, Lviv became an arena of battle between the local Polish population and the [[Ukrainian Sich Riflemen]]. Both nations perceived the city as an integral part of their new statehoods which at that time were forming in the former Austrian territories. On the night of 31 October – 1 November 1918 the [[West Ukrainian People's Republic|Western Ukrainian People's Republic]] was proclaimed with Lviv as its capital. 2,300 Ukrainian soldiers from the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen (Sichovi Striltsi), which had previously been a corps in the Austrian Army, made an attempt to take over Lviv. The city's Polish majority opposed the Ukrainian declaration and began to fight against the Ukrainian troops.<ref>Timothy Snyder, ''The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999'', Yale University Press, 2003, p.158</ref> During this combat an important role was taken by young Polish city defenders called [[Lwów Eaglets]].

The Ukrainian forces withdrew outside Lwów's confines by 21 November 1918, after which elements of Polish soldiers began to loot and burn much of the Jewish and Ukrainian quarters of the city, killing approximately 340 civilians (see: [[Lwów pogrom (1918)|Lwów pogrom]]). The pogromists were tried by Polish authorities and three were executed.<ref name="ND">Norman Davies. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SOFkWX8EC4cC&dq=lwow+pogrom+1918+killed++jews&pg=PA1012 "Ethnic Diversity in Twentieth-Century Poland."] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102033537/https://books.google.com/books?id=SOFkWX8EC4cC&pg=PA1012&dq=lwow+pogrom+1918+killed++jews&ei=30HASPveLIyYyATwlKiRDg&sig=ACfU3U30AZS2LbGlIGHT5aGD2ic7lFJ6eQ |date=2 January 2016}} In: Herbert Arthur Strauss. Hostages of Modernisation: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39. Walter de Gruyter, 1993.</ref> The retreating Ukrainian forces besieged the city. The Sich riflemen reformed into the [[Ukrainian Galician Army]] (UHA). The Polish forces aided from central Poland, including [[Józef Haller|General Haller]]'s [[Blue Army (Poland)|Blue Army]], equipped by the French, relieved the besieged city in May 1919 forcing the UHA to the east.

Despite [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] mediation attempts to cease hostilities and reach a compromise between belligerents the [[Polish–Ukrainian War]] continued until July 1919 when the last UHA forces withdrew east of the [[Zbruch River|River Zbruch]]. The border on the River Zbruch was confirmed at the [[Treaty of Warsaw (1920)|Treaty of Warsaw]], when in April 1920 Field [[Józef Piłsudski|Marshal Piłsudski]] signed an agreement with [[Symon Petliura|Symon Petlura]] where it was agreed that in exchange for military support against [[Bolsheviks|the Bolsheviks]] the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] renounced its claims to the territories of Eastern Galicia.

In August 1920, Lviv was attacked by the [[Red Army]] under the command of [[Alexander Ilyich Yegorov|Aleksandr Yegorov]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] during the [[Polish–Soviet War]] but [[Battle of Lwów (1920)|the city repelled the attack]].<ref>Norman Davies, White Eagle, [[Red star]]. Polish-Soviet War</ref> For the courage of its inhabitants Lviv was awarded the [[Virtuti Militari]] cross by Józef Piłsudski on 22 November 1920.

On 23 February 1921, the council of the [[League of Nations]] declared that Galicia (including the city) lay outside the territory of Poland and that Poland did not have the mandate to establish administrative control in that country, and that Poland was merely the occupying military power of Galicia (as a whole<ref name="MagocsiB" />), whose sovereign remained the [[Allied and Associated Powers|Allied Powers]] and fate would be determined by the [[Council of Ambassadors]] at the League of Nations.<ref>''Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia'' (1963). Edited by [[Volodymyr Kubiyovych]]. p. 780.</ref> On 14 March 1923, the Council of Ambassadors decided that Galicia would be incorporated into Poland "whereas it is recognised by Poland that ethnographical conditions necessitate an autonomous regime in the [[Eastern Galicia|Eastern part of Galicia]]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forost.ungarisches-institut.de/pdf/19230315-1.pdf |title=DECISION TAKEN BY THE CONFERENCE OF AMBASSADORS REGARDING THE EASTERN FRONTIERS OF POLAND. PARIS, MARCH 15, 1923 |website=forost.ungarisches-institut.de |language=en |access-date=14 January 2018 |archive-date=19 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719101750/http://www.forost.ungarisches-institut.de/pdf/19230315-1.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> This provision was never honoured by the [[Second Polish Republic|interwar Polish government]]. After 1923, the region was internationally recognized as part of the Polish state.<ref name="MagocsiB">{{cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R. |title=A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples |date=1996 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |pages=525–526}}</ref>

===Interwar period===
[[File:Lwów.Panorama miasta.jpg|thumb|A panorama of Lwów before 1924]]
During the [[interwar period]] Lwów was the [[Second Polish Republic]]'s third-most populous city (following [[Warsaw]] and [[Łódź]]), and it became the seat of the [[Lwów Voivodeship]]. Following Warsaw, Lviv was the second most important cultural and academic centre of interwar Poland. For example, in 1920 Professor [[Rudolf Weigl]] of Lwów University developed a [[Typhus vaccine|vaccine]] against [[typhus fever]]. Furthermore, the geographic location of Lwów gave it an important role in stimulating international trade and fostering the city's and Poland's economic development. A major [[trade fair]] named [[Targi Wschodnie]] was established in 1921. In the academic year 1937–1938, there were 9,100 students attending five institutions of higher education, including [[Lviv University|Lwów University]] as well as the [[Lviv Polytechnic|Polytechnic]].<ref>''Mały Rocznik Statystyczny 1939'' (Polish statistical yearbook of 1939), [[Central Statistical Office (Poland)]], Warsaw, 1939.</ref>
[[File:Targi Wschodnie (1930th).jpg|thumb|right|Eastern Trade Fair (''[[Targi Wschodnie]]''), main entrance.<ref name="cracovia-leopolis">{{cite web |url=http://cracovia-leopolis.pl/index.php?pokaz=art&id=2089 |title=Targi Wschodnie we Lwowie |publisher=Cracovia Leopolis |work=Kwartalniki |date=2006 |access-date=13 March 2013 |author=Aleksander Nikodemowicz |language=pl |archive-date=28 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928020306/http://cracovia-leopolis.pl/index.php?pokaz=art&id=2089 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

While about two-thirds of the city's inhabitants were Poles, some of whom spoke the characteristic [[Lwów dialect]], the eastern part of the Lwów Voivodeship had a relative [[Demographics of Ukraine|Ukrainian]] majority in most of its rural areas. Polish authorities were obliged through international agreements to provide [[Eastern Galicia]] with autonomy (including the creation of a separate Ukrainian university in Lwów), and even though a bill was enacted the [[Sejm of the Republic of Poland|Polish Sejm]] in September 1922,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pl.wikisource.org/wiki/Ustawa_o_zasadach_powszechnego_samorz%C4%85du_wojew%C3%B3dzkiego |title=Text of the 1922 Bill (in Polish) |language=pl |publisher=Pl.wikisource.org |date=29 February 2012 |access-date=3 May 2012 |archive-date=2 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502230934/http://pl.wikisource.org/wiki/Ustawa_o_zasadach_powszechnego_samorz%C4%85du_wojew%C3%B3dzkiego |url-status=live}}</ref> this was not fulfilled.

The Polish government discontinued many Ukrainian schools which functioned during the Austrian rule,<ref name=Magosci>{{cite book |author=Magosci, R. |title=A History of Ukraine |location=Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1996}}</ref> and closed down Ukrainian departments at the University of Lwów with the exception of one.<ref name=Subtelny>{{cite book |last=Subtelny |first=Orest |title=Ukraine: A History |location=Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1988}}</ref> Prewar Lwów also had a large and thriving [[Jews|Jewish community]], which constituted about a quarter of the population, but were accused of having collaborated with the Ukrainians.<ref name="Oldenbourg">{{cite book|author-last=Mick|author-first=Christoph|chapter=Lemberg/Lwów/L'viv - die multiethnische Stadt|editor=Matthias Weber, Burkhard Olschowsky, Ivan Petranský, Attila Pók, Andrzej Przewoźnik|title=Erinnerungsorte in Ostmitteleuropa: Erfahrungen der Vergangenheit und Perspektiven|publisher=Oldenbourg|year= 2011|language=de|pages=130}}</ref>

Unlike in Austrian times, when the size and number of public parades or other cultural expressions corresponded to each cultural group's relative population, the Polish government emphasised the Polish nature of the city and limited public displays of [[Jewish culture|Jewish]] and [[Ukrainian culture]].{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} Military parades and commemorations of battles at particular streets within the city, all celebrating the Polish forces who fought against the Ukrainians in 1918, became frequent,<ref name="Oldenbourg"/> and in the 1930s a vast [[Cemetery of the Defenders of Lwów|memorial monument and burial ground of Polish soldiers]] from that conflict was built in the city's [[Lychakiv Cemetery]]. On the other hand, Ukrainians strove to create their own memorial culture in the town. An underground military organization attacked Polish institutions, as well as Polish politicians.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Mick|author-first=Christoph|chapter=Lemberg/Lwów/L'viv - die multiethnische Stadt|editor=Matthias Weber, Burkhard Olschowsky, Ivan Petranský, Attila Pók, Andrzej Przewoźnik|title=Erinnerungsorte in Ostmitteleuropa: Erfahrungen der Vergangenheit und Perspektiven|publisher=Oldenbourg|year= 2011|language=de|pages=131}}</ref>

===World War II===
====Soviet occupation and incorporation====
{{further|Battle of Lwów (1939)}}
[[Invasion of Poland|Germany invaded Poland]] on 1 September 1939 and by 14 September Lwów was completely encircled by [[German Army (1935–1945)|German Army]] units.<ref>Robert M. Kennedy, The German Campaign in Poland (1939), Major Infantry United States Army DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY DC 1956.</ref> Subsequently, the [[Soviet invasion of Poland|Soviets invaded Poland]] on 17 September. On 22 September 1939 Lwów capitulated to the [[Red Army]]. The [[Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union|USSR annexed the eastern half of the Second Polish Republic]] with Ukrainian and Belarusian populations. The city became the capital of the newly formed [[Lviv Oblast]]. The Soviets reopened uni-lingual Ukrainian schools, which had been discontinued by the Polish government.

The only change over imposed by the Soviets was the language of instruction, with the actual net loss of about 1,000 schools in short order.<ref name="p201">{{citation |url=https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot |url-access=registration |quote=Ukraini-anized. |title=Poland's Holocaust |publisher=McFarland |work=Ukrainian collaboration |year=1998 |first=Tadeusz |last=Piotrowski |author-link=Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist) |pages=[https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/201 201]–202 |isbn=0-7864-0371-3}}</ref> Ukrainian was made compulsory in the [[University of Lviv]] with almost all its books in Polish{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}. It became thoroughly [[Ukrainization|Ukrainized]] and was renamed after Ukrainian writer [[Ivan Franko]]. Polish academics were laid off.<ref name="magocsi">Paul Robert Magocsi. (1996). ''A History of Ukraine''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press</ref> Soviet rule turned out to be much more oppressive than Polish rule; the rich world of Ukrainian publications in Polish Lwów, for instance, was gone in Soviet Lviv, and many journalism jobs were lost with it.<ref name="Amar">{{cite book |title=The Paradox of Ukrainian Lviv: A Borderland City between Stalinists, Nazis, and Nationalists |author=Tarik Cyril Amar |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-5017-0083-5 |chapter=The Ukrainian encounter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bvTvCgAAQBAJ&q=oppressive+world |pages=87–88 |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-date=4 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304214138/https://books.google.com/books?id=bvTvCgAAQBAJ&q=oppressive+world |url-status=live }}</ref>

====German occupation====
{{Main|Battle of Lwów (1941)}}
On 22 June 1941, [[Nazi Germany]] and several of its [[Axis powers|allies]] invaded the USSR. In the initial stage of [[Operation Barbarossa]] (30 June 1941) Lviv was taken by the Germans. The evacuating Soviets [[NKVD prisoner massacres#Poland|killed most of the prison population]], with arriving [[Wehrmacht]] forces easily discovering evidence of the Soviet mass murders in the city<ref name="Lviv massacre">{{cite web |url=http://www.alfreddezayas.com/Chapbooks/Lembergmassacre.shtml |title=Lviv massacre |publisher=Alfreddezayas.com |access-date=3 May 2012 |archive-date=7 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707111610/http://www.alfreddezayas.com/Chapbooks/Lembergmassacre.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> committed by the [[NKVD]] and [[People's Commissariat for State Security|NKGB]]. On 30 June 1941 [[Yaroslav Stetsko]] [[Declaration of Ukrainian Independence, 1941|proclaimed in Lviv the Government of an independent Ukrainian state]] allied with Nazi Germany. This was done without preapproval from the Germans and after 15 September 1941, the organisers were arrested.<ref name="history.org.ua">Організація українських націоналістів і Українська повстанська армія. Інститут історії НАН України.2004р Організація українських націоналістів і Українська повстанська армія,</ref><ref name="autogenerated1940">І.К. Патриляк. Військова діяльність ОУН(Б) у 1940–1942 роках. – Університет імені Шевченко \Ін-т історії України НАН України Київ, 2004 (No ISBN)</ref><ref>ОУН в 1941 році: документи: В 2-х ч Ін-т історії України НАН України К. 2006 {{ISBN|966-02-2535-0}}</ref>
[[File:Львівське гетто.jpg|thumb|Memorial to Lviv ghetto victims of the [[Holocaust]], erected in 1992 on Chornovola Street. The inscription reads "remember and keep in your heart".]]
The [[Sikorski–Mayski Agreement]] signed in London on 30 July 1941 between the [[Polish government-in-exile]] and the Soviet government invalidated the [[German–Soviet Frontier Treaty|September 1939 Soviet-German partition of Poland]], as the Soviets declared it null and void.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/polsov.asp |title=Text of Polish-Soviet Treaty of 1941 |publisher=Avalon.law.yale.edu |date=30 July 1941 |access-date=3 May 2012 |archive-date=10 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810225919/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/polsov.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> Meanwhile, German-occupied Eastern Galicia at the beginning of August 1941 was incorporated into the [[General Government]] as ''[[District of Galicia|Distrikt Galizien]]'' with Lviv as the district's capital. German policy towards the Polish population in this area was as harsh as in the rest of the General Government.<ref name="auto">ОУН і УПА в 1943 році: Документи / НАН України. Інститут історії України. – К.: Інститут історії України, 2008. – 347 с. {{ISBN|978-966-02-4911-0}} p.166</ref>

During the occupation of the city, the Germans committed numerous atrocities, including the [[Massacre of Lwów professors|killing of Polish university professors]] in 1941. German Nazis viewed the Ukrainian Galicians, former inhabitants of Austrian Crown Land, as more [[aryan]]ised and civilised than the Ukrainian population living in the territories belonging to the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] before 1939. As a result, they escaped the full extent of German acts in comparison to Ukrainians who lived to the east, in the German-occupied [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Ukraine]] turned into the ''[[Reichskommissariat Ukraine]]''.<ref name="auto"/>

[[File:Janowska Nazi camp orchestra.jpg|thumb|The imprisoned [[Tango of Death|Tango of Death orchestra]]]]
According to the [[The Holocaust|Third Reich's racial policies]], local Jews then became the main target of German repressions in the region. Following the German occupation, the Jewish population was concentrated in the [[Lwów Ghetto]] established in the city's Zamarstynów (today ''[[Zamarstyniv]]'') district and the [[Janowska concentration camp]] was also set up. In the Janowska concentration camp, the Nazis conducted torture and executions to music. The [[Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet|Lviv National Opera]] members, who were prisoners, played one and the same tune, Tango of Death.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}

On the eve of Lviv's liberation, German Nazis ordered 40 orchestra musicians to form a circle. The security ringed the musicians tightly and ordered them to play. First, the orchestra conductor, Mund, was executed. Then the commandant ordered the musicians to come to the center of the circle one by one, put their instruments onto the ground and strip naked, after which they were killed by a headshot.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} A [[Tango of Death (orchestra)|photo of the orchestra players]] was one of the incriminating documents at the [[Nuremberg trials]].

In 1931 there were 75,316 [[Yiddish]]-speaking inhabitants, but by 1941 approximately 100,000 Jews were present in Lviv.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/media_cm.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005171&MediaId=1581 |title=Lvov 1939–1944 Timeline |work=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506162225/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/media_cm.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005171&MediaId=1581 |archive-date=6 May 2009}}</ref> The majority of these Jews were either killed within the city or deported to [[Belzec extermination camp]]. In the summer of 1943, on the orders of [[Heinrich Himmler]], [[Standartenführer|SS-Standartenführer]] [[Paul Blobel]] was tasked with the destruction of any evidence of Nazi mass murders in the Lviv area. On 15 June Blobel, using forced labourers from Janowska, dug up a number of mass graves and incinerated the remains.<ref>Gilbert, M. (1989), ''Second World War'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson, p. 438</ref>

Later, on 19 November 1943, inmates at Janowska staged an uprising and attempted a mass escape. A few succeeded, but most were recaptured and killed. The [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] staff and their local auxiliaries then, at the time of the Janowska camp's liquidation, murdered at least 6,000 more inmates, as well as the [[Jews]] in other forced labour camps in Galicia. By the end of the war, the Jewish population of the city was virtually eliminated, with only around 200 to 800 survivors remaining.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=chDkIitLUnY |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/chDkIitLUnY |archive-date=2021-10-30 |title=A True Story of Holocaust Survivors. The documentary includes 60 historical pictures. 1932–1944, Lwow, Poland (now Lviv, Ukraine) |website=[[YouTube]]|date=6 March 2020 }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>Filip Friedman, ''Zagłada Żydów lwowskich'' (Extermination of the Jews of Lwów) – [http://www.mankurty.com/fridpl.html online in Polish, Ukrainian and Russian] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417082332/http://www.mankurty.com/fridpl.html|date=17 April 2014 }}</ref>

====Soviet re-occupation====
{{Main|Lwów uprising}}
[[File:RKKA Lviv.jpg|thumb|Soviet soldiers in Lviv, July 1944]]
After the successful [[Lvov–Sandomierz offensive|Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive]] of July 1944, the Soviet [[3rd Guards Tank Army]] captured Lwów on 27 July 1944, with significant cooperation from the local Polish resistance. Soon thereafter, the local commanders of Polish ''[[Armia Krajowa]]'' were invited to a meeting with the commanders of the Red Army. During the meeting, they were arrested, as it turned out to be a trap set by the Soviet NKVD. Later, in the winter and spring of 1945, the local NKVD continued to arrest and harass Poles in Lwów (which according to Soviet sources on 1 October 1944 still had a clear Polish majority of 66.7%) in an attempt to encourage their emigration from the city.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=David |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/646810103 |title=Summits : six meetings that shaped the twentieth century |date=2009 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7867-4458-9 |location=New York |oclc=646810103 |access-date=15 October 2021 |archive-date=15 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315054840/https://www.worldcat.org/title/summits-six-meetings-that-shaped-the-twentieth-century/oclc/646810103 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Those arrested were released only after they had signed papers in which they agreed to emigrate to Poland, which postwar borders were [[Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II|to be shifted westwards]] in accordance with the [[Yalta conference]] settlements. In Yalta, despite Polish objections, the Allied leaders, [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Winston Churchill]] decided that Lwów should remain within the borders of the Soviet Union. Roosevelt wanted Poland to have Lwów and the surrounding [[Petroleum reservoir|oilfields]], but Stalin refused to allow it.<ref name="auto1"/>

On 16 August 1945, a border agreement<ref>[[:pl:wikisource:Umowa graniczna pomiędzy Polską a ZSRR z 16 sierpnia 1945 roku]] [http://pl.wikisource.org/wiki/Umowa_graniczna_pomi%C4%99dzy_Polsk%C4%85_a_ZSRR_z_16_sierpnia_1945_roku] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091118182630/http://pl.wikisource.org/wiki/Umowa_graniczna_pomi%C4%99dzy_Polsk%C4%85_a_ZSRR_z_16_sierpnia_1945_roku |date=18 November 2009 }} full text of the agreement {{in lang|pl}}</ref> was signed in Moscow between the [[government of the Soviet Union]] and the [[Provisional Government of National Unity]] installed by the Soviets in Poland. In the treaty, Polish authorities formally [[cession|ceded]] the prewar eastern part of the country to the Soviet Union, agreeing to the Polish-Soviet border to be drawn according to the [[Curzon Line]]. Consequently, the agreement was [[ratification|ratified]] on 5 February 1946.

=== Soviet era ===
 
In February 1946, Lviv became a part of the Soviet Union. It is estimated that from 100,000 to 140,000 Poles were resettled from the city into the so-called [[Recovered Territories]] as a part of [[Population transfer#Central Europe|postwar population transfers]], many of them to the area of newly acquired [[Wrocław]], formerly the German city of Breslau. Many buildings in the old part of the city are examples of [[Architecture of Poland|Polish architecture]], which flourished in Lviv after the opening of the Technical School (later Polytechnic), the first higher-education technical academy in Polish lands. Polytechnic educated generations of architects who were influential in the entire country. Examples include the main buildings of [[Lviv Polytechnic]], the [[University of Lviv]], the [[Lviv Opera]], the [[Lviv railway station]], the former building of Galicyjska Kasa Oszczędności, and [[Potocki Palace, Lviv|Potocki Palace]].<ref>Ihor Zhuk, 'The Architecture of Lviv from the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Centuries', s. 113</ref>
[[File:Lviv. Former Jewish Quarter of Suburb.jpg|thumb|View on the Opera Theatre and Hotel Lviv in the late 1960s]]
During the interwar period, Lviv was striving to become a modern metropolis, so architects experimented with modernism. It was the period of the most rapid growth of the city, so one can find many examples of architecture from this time in the city.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} Examples include the main building of [[Lviv Academy of Commerce]], the second Sprecher's building or building of City Electrical Facilities.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} One monument of the Polish past is the [[Adam Mickiewicz Monument, Lviv|Adam Mickiewicz Monument]] at the square bearing his name.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}

Many Polish pieces of art and sculpture can be found in Lviv galleries, among them works by [[Jan Piotr Norblin]], [[Marcello Bacciarelli]], [[Kazimierz Wojniakowski]], [[Antoni Brodowski]], [[Henryk Rodakowski]], [[Artur Grottger]], [[Jan Matejko]], [[Aleksander Gierymski]], [[Jan Stanisławski (painter)|Jan Stanisławski]], [[Leon Wyczółkowski]], [[Józef Chełmoński]], [[Józef Mehoffer]], [[Stanisław Wyspiański]], [[Olga Boznańska]], [[Władysław Słowiński]], [[Jacek Malczewski]].{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} Poles who stayed in Lviv formed the organisation the [[Association of Polish Culture of the Lviv Land]].

According to various estimates, Lviv lost between 80% and 90% of its prewar population.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Törnquist-Plewa |editor1-first=Barbara |title=Whose Memory? Which Future?: Remembering Ethnic Cleansing and Lost Cultural Diversity in Eastern, Central and Southeastern Europe |date=2016 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-78533-122-0 |page=74}}</ref> Expulsion of the Polish population and [[the Holocaust]] together with migration from [[Ukrainophone|Ukrainian-speaking]] surrounding areas (including forcibly resettled from the territories which, after the war, became part of the Polish People's Republic), from other parts of the Soviet Union, altered the ethnic composition of the city. Immigration from Russia and Russian-speaking regions of eastern Ukraine was encouraged.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}} The prevalence of the Ukrainian-speaking population led to the fact that under the conditions of Soviet Russification,{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} Lviv became a major centre of the [[Dissident movement in the Soviet Union|dissident movement in Ukraine]] and played a key role in Ukraine's independence in 1991.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the city expanded both in population and size mostly due to the city's rapidly growing industrial base. Due to the fight of [[SMERSH]] with the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]], Lviv obtained a nickname with a negative connotation: ''Banderstadt'', meaning the city of [[Stepan Bandera]]. The German suffix for the city ''stadt'' was added instead of the Russian ''[[Grad (toponymy)|grad]]'' to imply alienation. Over the years the residents of the city found this so ridiculous that even people not familiar with Bandera accepted it as sarcasm in reference to the Soviet perception of [[western Ukraine]]. In the period of [[Perestroika|liberalisation from the Soviet system]] in the 1980s, the city became the centre of political movements advocating [[Modern history of Ukraine|Ukrainian independence]] from the USSR. By the time of the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]] the name became a proud mark for the Lviv natives culminating in the creation of a local rock band under the name ''Khloptsi z Bandershtadtu'' (Boys from Banderstadt).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bandershtadt.w6.ru/ |title=Official site of the Khloptsi z Bandershtadtu |publisher=Bandershtadt.w6.ru |access-date=3 May 2012 |archive-date=14 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414164419/http://bandershtadt.w6.ru/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 17 September 1989 Lviv saw the largest rally in support of Ukraine's independence from the Soviet Union, gathering some 100,000 participants.<ref name="cnn1803">{{cite news |title=Russia has attacked Lviv. Here's why the western city is so important to Ukraine's defense |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/18/europe/lviv-ukraine-attack-russia-importance-intl/index.html |access-date=18 March 2022 |agency=CNN |date=18 March 2022 |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323011157/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/18/europe/lviv-ukraine-attack-russia-importance-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Independent Ukraine===
[[File:Lviv street scene 20041126.jpg|thumb|Protesters in Lviv during the 2004 presidential election]]
The citizens of Lviv strongly supported [[Viktor Yushchenko]] during the [[2004 Ukrainian presidential election]] and played a key role in the [[Orange Revolution]]. Hundreds of thousands of people would gather in freezing temperatures to demonstrate for the Orange camp. Acts of [[civil disobedience]] forced the head of the local police to resign and the local assembly issued a resolution refusing to accept the fraudulent first official results.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tchorek |first=Kamil |title=Protest grows in western city |work=Times Online |date=26 November 2004 |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article395652.ece |access-date=25 July 2009 |archive-date=29 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629121745/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article395652.ece |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lviv remains today one of the main centres of Ukrainian culture and the origin of much of the nation's political class.

In support of the [[Euromaidan]] movement, Lviv's executive committee declared itself independent of the rule of President [[Viktor Yanukovych]] on 19 February 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ukraine-facing-civil-war-lviv-declares-independence-yanukovich-rule-1437092 |title=Ukraine Facing Civil War: Lviv Declares Independence from Yanukovich Rule |last=Gianluca Mezzofiore |date=19 February 2014 |work=International Business Times |access-date=19 February 2014 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201194141/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ukraine-facing-civil-war-lviv-declares-independence-yanukovich-rule-1437092 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2019, the citizens of Lviv strongly supported [[Petro Poroshenko]] over [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] during the [[2019 Ukrainian presidential election]]. The percentage of votes counted for Poroshenko was more than 90%. Despite this level of support in Lviv, he lost the national vote.

Until 18 July 2020, Lviv was incorporated as a [[city of regional significance (Ukraine)|city of oblast significance]] and the center of [[Lviv Municipality]]. The municipality was abolished in July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Lviv Oblast to seven. The area of Lviv Municipality was merged into the newly established Lviv Raion.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Про утворення та ліквідацію районів. Постанова Верховної Ради України № 807-ІХ. |url=http://www.golos.com.ua/article/333466 |access-date=2020-10-03 |date=2020-07-18 |website=Голос України |language=uk |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709121303/http://www.golos.com.ua/article/333466 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Нові райони: карти + склад |date=July 17, 2020 |url=https://www.minregion.gov.ua/press/news/novi-rajony-karty-sklad/ |publisher=Міністерство розвитку громад та територій України |language=Ukrainian |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302224321/https://www.minregion.gov.ua/press/news/novi-rajony-karty-sklad/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Russo-Ukrainian War====
=====Russian invasion of Ukraine=====
{{See also|Lviv strikes (2022–present)}}
[[File:2022 Lviv bombing.jpg|thumb|Fire after a Russian strike on a fuel depot in Lviv, March 2022]]
During the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]], Lviv became the nation's ''de facto'' western capital in February 2022 as some embassies, government agencies, and media organizations were relocated from [[Kyiv]] due to the direct military threat to the capital.<ref name=War>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/02/18/ukraine-russia-lviv-war/ |title=Ukraine's Lviv in spotlight as diplomats and others leave Kyiv – the Washington Post |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224074723/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/02/18/ukraine-russia-lviv-war/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Lviv also became a safe haven for the Ukrainians fleeing other parts of the country affected by the invasion, their number exceeding 200,000 by 18 March 2022. Many used the city as a stopping point on their way to Poland. Lviv and the larger region around it also served as crucial arms and humanitarian supply route.<ref name="cnn1803" /> Bracing for Russian attacks, local government and citizens, helped by Polish and Croatian advisers, worked to protect the city's cultural heritage by erecting makeshift barriers around historical monuments, wrapping statues, and safeguarding art treasures.<ref>{{cite news |title=Wrapping The Art Treasures Of Lviv |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/lviv-monuments-protection-russia-war/31759566.html |access-date=18 March 2022 |agency=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |date=18 March 2022 |language=en |archive-date=18 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318145610/https://www.rferl.org/a/lviv-monuments-protection-russia-war/31759566.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the course of the war, the area in and around Lviv has been struck by Russian missile attacks. [[Yavoriv military base attack|Yavoriv military training base]] was struck on 13 March 2022, the Lviv State Aircraft Repair Plant near the [[Lviv Danylo Halytskyi International Airport]] on 18 March 2022,<ref name="cnn1803" /> and a fuel depot and other facilities within the city limits on 26 March 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Three additional blasts heard in Lviv, regional military administration says |url=https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/ukraine-russia-putin-news-03-26-22#h_0209716058a32b5f42a81bf113a2f979 |access-date=26 March 2022 |work=CNN |date=26 March 2022 |language=en |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326184113/https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/ukraine-russia-putin-news-03-26-22/h_0209716058a32b5f42a81bf113a2f979 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 18 April 2022, the city was hit by five missile strikes, killing seven civilians and wounding 11, according to mayor [[Andriy Sadovyi|Andriy Sadoviy]]. Regional governor Maksym Kozystkiy said that the targets were military factories and a tyre shop. A hotel housing evacuees was also hit, damaging its windows. The Russian Ministry of Defence claimed that all locations were struck by Russian missiles during the night of 18 April were military targets.<ref>{{cite news |title= Blasts rock Ukraine as bodies line streets |url= https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7702438/blasts-rock-ukraine-as-bodies-line-streets/ |access-date= 18 April 2022 |publisher= the Canberra Times |date= 18 April 2022 |language= en |archive-date= 18 April 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220418092930/https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7702438/blasts-rock-ukraine-as-bodies-line-streets/ |url-status= live }}</ref>

Lviv was targeted during the [[10 October 2022 missile strikes on Ukraine]], resulting in a city-wide blackout.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Explosions in Lviv, city is without electricity and mobile connection |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2022/10/10/7371068/ |access-date=2022-10-12 |website=Ukrainska Pravda |language=en |archive-date=12 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012150631/https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2022/10/10/7371068/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On 11 October 2022,  Sadoviy announced that the city was hit by a missile strike, resulting in a power outage and water supply shortage.<ref>{{Cite news |agency=Reuters |date=2022-10-12 |title=Russian strike on Ukraine's Lviv hits power supply – mayor |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian-strike-ukraines-lviv-hits-power-supply-mayor-says-2022-10-11/ |access-date=2022-10-12 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013015118/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian-strike-ukraines-lviv-hits-power-supply-mayor-says-2022-10-11/ |url-status=live }}</ref>