Editing Koko (gorilla) (section)

===Use of language and controversy===

Francine Patterson published a few peer-reviewed studies on her work with Koko in the late 1970s. She demonstrated that Koko was able to communicate using a number of signs adapted from American Sign Language. Gorillas have thick, stubby fingers and hands that move differently than humans, so Koko was unable to make some ASL signs. Francine Patterson used the term "Gorilla Sign Language" to refer to Koko's adaptations.<ref name="Fischer">{{Cite book |last=Fischer |first=Steven R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&q=koko+language&pg=PA27 |title=A History of Language |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=1999 |isbn=1-86189-080-X |pages=26–28}}</ref>

Patterson reported that Koko invented new signs to communicate novel thoughts. For example, she said that nobody taught Koko the word for "ring", so Koko combined the words "finger" and "bracelet", hence "finger-bracelet".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mission part 1: Research |url=http://www.koko.org/friends/research.koko.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090602082734/http://www.koko.org/friends/research.koko.html |archive-date=June 2, 2009 |publisher=koko.org}}</ref>{{Promotional source|date=October 2024}} This type of claim was seen as a typical problem with Patterson's methodology, as it relies on a human interpreter of Koko's intentions.

In 1979,&nbsp;[[Herbert S. Terrace]] published the negative results of his [[Nim Chimpsky]] study, which presented evidence that Koko was mimicking her trainers. Terrace's article ignited intense debate over the ape language experiments (see "Scientific criticism" below), culminating in the 1980 "[[Clever Hans]]" conference that mocked the other researchers involved. Funding for the ape language experiments disappeared seemingly overnight.<ref name=":4">"Episode 5: A Witch Hunt." December 1, 2021. ''A Show About Animals'' podcast by ''VICE''.</ref>

While other scientists severed ties with their apes after funding dried up, Patterson maintained responsibility for Koko. (For example, most of the chimps who worked with Terrace, as well as with [[Beatrix Tugendhut Gardner|the Gardners]], were sold to medical labs for use in testing.)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hess |first=Elizabeth |title=Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be Human |date=2008 |publisher=Bantam |isbn=9780553803839 |location=New York}}</ref> Though Patterson had initially defended her scientific work, she turned her focus away from science and toward securing revenue for the upkeep of Koko and Michael.<ref name=":4" /> Her work involved fund-raising, PR campaigns, and managing [[The Gorilla Foundation|Gorilla Foundation]] caregiving staff. After 1978, Patterson and Koko had no affiliation with any university or government funding.<ref>Linden, E. (1986) p. 52</ref>