Editing Joseph Greenberg (section)

==Contributions to linguistics==
=== Linguistic typology===
Greenberg is considered the founder of modern [[linguistic typology]],<ref>Luraghi, S. (2010) Introduzione, in Crof & Cruise ''Linguistica cognitiva'', Italian edition, p.19</ref> a field that he has revitalized with his publications in the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199281251.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199281251-e-001 | doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199281251.013.0001 | year=2010 | last1=Song | first1=Jae Jung | title=Setting the Stage |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology}}</ref> Greenberg's reputation rests partly on his contributions to [[synchronic linguistics]] and the quest to identify [[Greenberg's linguistic universals|linguistic universal]]s. During the late 1950s, Greenberg began to examine languages covering a wide geographic and genetic distribution. He located a number of interesting potential universals as well as many strong cross-linguistic tendencies.

In particular, Greenberg conceptualized the idea of [[linguistic universal|"implicational universal"]], which has the form, "if a language has structure X, then it must also have structure Y." For example, X might be "mid front rounded vowels" and Y "high front rounded vowels" (for terminology see [[phonetics]]). Many scholars adopted this kind of research following Greenberg's example and it remains important in synchronic linguistics.

Like [[Noam Chomsky]], Greenberg sought to discover the universal structures on which human language is based. Unlike Chomsky, Greenberg's method was [[functionalist theories of grammar|functionalist]], rather than [[Formal language theory|formalist]]. An argument to reconcile the Greenbergian and Chomskyan methods can be found in ''Linguistic Universals'' (2006), edited by Ricardo Mairal and Juana Gil.

Many who are strongly opposed to Greenberg's methods of language classification (see below) acknowledge the importance of his typological work. In 1963 he published an article : "Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements".

===Mass comparison===
{{main|Mass comparison}}

Greenberg rejected the opinion, prevalent among linguists since the mid-20th century, that [[comparative method|comparative reconstruction]] was the only method to discover relationships between languages. He argued that genetic classification is methodologically prior to comparative reconstruction, or the first stage of it: one cannot engage in the comparative reconstruction of languages until one knows which languages to compare (1957:44).

He also criticized the prevalent opinion that comprehensive comparisons of two languages at a time (which commonly take years to perform) could establish language families of any size. He argued that, even for 8 languages, there are already [[Bell number|4,140 ways]] to classify them into distinct families, while for 25 languages there are 4,638,590,332,229,999,353 ways (1957:44). For comparison, the [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] family is said to have some 1,500 languages. He thought language families of any size needed to be established by some scholastic means other than bilateral comparison. The theory of mass comparison is an attempt to demonstrate such means.

Greenberg argued for the virtues of breadth over depth. He advocated restricting the amount of material to be compared (to basic vocabulary, morphology, and known paths of sound change) and increasing the number of languages to be compared to all the languages in a given area. This would make it possible to compare numerous languages reliably. At the same time, the process would provide a check on accidental resemblances through the sheer number of languages under review. The mathematical probability that resemblances are accidental decreases strongly with the number of languages concerned (1957:39).

Greenberg used the premise that mass "borrowing" of basic vocabulary is unknown. He argued that borrowing, when it occurs, is concentrated in cultural vocabulary and clusters "in certain semantic areas", making it easy to detect (1957:39). With the goal of determining broad patterns of relationship, the idea was not to get every word right but to detect patterns. From the beginning with his theory of mass comparison, Greenberg addressed why chance resemblance and borrowing were not obstacles to its being useful. Despite that, critics consider those phenomena caused difficulties for his theory.

Greenberg first termed his method "mass comparison" in an article of 1954 (reprinted in Greenberg 1955). As of 1987, he replaced the term "mass comparison" with "multilateral comparison", to emphasize its contrast with the bilateral comparisons recommended by linguistics textbooks. He believed that multilateral comparison was not in any way opposed to the comparative method, but is, on the contrary, its necessary first step (Greenberg, 1957:44). According to him, comparative reconstruction should have the status of an explanatory theory for facts already established by language classification (Greenberg, 1957:45).

Most historical linguists (Campbell 2001:45) reject the use of mass comparison as a method for establishing genealogical relationships between languages. Among the most outspoken critics of mass comparison have been [[Lyle Campbell]], [[Donald Ringe]], [[William Poser]], and the late [[Larry Trask|R. Larry Trask]].

===Genetic classification of languages===
====Languages of Africa====
Greenberg is known widely for his development of a classification system for the [[languages of Africa]], which he published as a series of articles in the ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' from 1949 to 1954 (reprinted together as a book, ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'', in 1955). He revised the book and published it again during 1963, followed by a nearly identical edition of 1966 (reprinted without change during 1970). A few more changes of the classification were made by Greenberg in an article during 1981.

Greenberg grouped the hundreds of African languages into four families, which he dubbed [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]], [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]], [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]], and [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]]. During the course of his work, Greenberg invented the term "Afroasiatic" to replace the earlier term "Hamito-Semitic", after showing that the [[Hamitic]] group, accepted widely since the 19th century, is not a valid language family. Another major feature of his work was to establish the classification of the [[Bantu languages]], which occupy much of Central and Southern Africa, as a part of the Niger–Congo family, rather than as an independent family as many Bantuists had maintained.

Greenberg's classification rested largely in evaluating competing earlier classifications. For a time, his classification was considered bold and speculative, especially the proposal of a Nilo-Saharan language family. Now, apart from Khoisan, it is generally accepted by African specialists and has been used as a basis for further work by other scholars.

Greenberg's work on African languages has been criticised by [[Lyle Campbell]] and Donald Ringe, who do not believe that his classification is justified by his data and request a re-examination of his macro-phyla by "reliable methods" (Ringe 1993:104). [[Harold C. Fleming|Harold Fleming]] and [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Lionel Bender]], who were sympathetic to Greenberg's classification, acknowledged that at least some of his macrofamilies (particularly the Nilo-Saharan and the Khoisan macrofamilies) are not accepted completely by most linguists and may need to be divided (Campbell 1997). Their objection was [[methodology|methodological]]: if mass comparison is not a valid method, it cannot be expected to have brought order successfully out of the confusion of African languages.

By contrast, some linguists have sought to combine Greenberg's four African families into larger units. In particular, Edgar Gregersen (1972) proposed joining Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan into a larger family, which he termed [[Niger–Congo languages#Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan|Kongo-Saharan]]. [[Roger Blench]] (1995) suggests Niger–Congo is a subfamily of Nilo-Saharan.

====The languages of New Guinea, Tasmania, and the Andaman Islands====
{{main|Indo-Pacific languages}}

During 1971 Greenberg proposed the [[Indo-Pacific languages|Indo-Pacific]] [[macrofamily]], which groups together the [[Papuan languages]] (a large number of language families of [[New Guinea]] and nearby islands) with the native languages of the [[Andaman Islands]] and [[Tasmania]] but excludes the [[indigenous Australian languages|Australian Aboriginal languages]]. Its principal feature was to reduce the manifold language families of New Guinea to a single genetic unit. This excludes the [[Austronesian languages]], which have been established as associated with a more recent migration of people.

Greenberg's [[subgrouping (linguistics)|subgrouping]] of these languages has not been accepted by the few specialists who have worked on the classification of these languages.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} However, the work of [[Stephen Wurm]] (1982) and [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]] (2005) has provided considerable evidence for his once-radical idea that these languages form a single genetic unit. Wurm stated that the lexical similarities between [[Great Andamanese]] and the West Papuan and Timor–Alor families "are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity [...] in a number of instances." He believes this to be due to a [[linguistic substratum]].

====The languages of the Americas====
{{main|Amerind languages}}
Most linguists concerned with the [[indigenous languages of the Americas|native languages of the Americas]] classify them into 150 to 180 independent language families. Some believe that two language families, [[Eskimo–Aleut]] and [[Na-Dené]], were distinct, perhaps the results of later migrations into the New World.

Early on, Greenberg (1957:41, 1960) became convinced that many of the language groups considered unrelated could be classified into larger groupings. In his 1987 book ''Language in the Americas'', while agreeing that the [[Eskimo–Aleut]] and [[Na-Dené]] groupings as distinct, he proposed that all the other Native American languages belong to a single language macro-family, which he termed [[Amerind languages|Amerind]].

''Language in the Americas'' has generated lively debate, but has been criticized strongly; it is rejected by most specialists of indigenous languages of the Americas and also by most historical linguists. Specialists of the individual language families have found extensive inaccuracies and errors in Greenberg's data, such as including data from non-existent languages, erroneous transcriptions of the forms compared, misinterpretations of the meanings of words used for comparison, and entirely spurious forms.<ref>Chafe, Wallace. (1987). [Review of Greenberg 1987]. ''Current Anthropology'', ''28'', page 652-653.</ref><ref>Goddard, Ives. (1987). [Review of Joseph Greenberg, ''Language in the Americas'']. ''Current Anthropology'', ''28'', 656-657.</ref><ref>Goddard, Ives. (1990).  [Review of ''Language in the Americas'' by Joseph H. Greenberg]. ''Linguistics'', ''28'', 556-558.</ref><ref>Golla, Victor. (1988).  [Review of ''Language in the Americas'', by Joseph Greenberg]. ''American Anthropologist'', ''90'', page 434-435.</ref><ref>Kimball, Geoffrey. (1992). A critique of Muskogean, 'Gulf,' and Yukian materials in Language in the Americas. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''58'', page 447-501.</ref><ref>Poser, William J. (1992). The Salinan and Yurumanguí data in Language in the Americas. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''58'' (2), 202-229. [http://www.billposer.org/Papers/sydilia.pdf PDF]</ref>

Historical linguists also reject the validity of the method of multilateral (or mass) comparison upon which the classification is based. They argue that he has not provided a convincing case that the similarities presented as evidence are due to inheritance from an earlier common ancestor rather than being explained by a combination of errors, accidental similarity, excessive semantic latitude in comparisons, borrowings, onomatopoeia, etc.

However, Harvard geneticist David Reich notes that recent genetic studies have identified patterns that support Greenberg's Amerind classification: the "First American” category. "The cluster of populations that he predicted to be most closely related based on language were in fact verified by the genetic patterns in populations for which data are available.” Nevertheless, this category of "First American" people also interbred with and contributed a significant amount of genes to the ancestors of both Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dené populations, with 60% and 90% "First American" DNA respectively constituting the genetic makeup of the two groups.<ref>Reich, David. (2018). ''Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past.'' Chapter 7. New York: Pantheon Books (2018).</ref>

==== The languages of northern Eurasia ====
{{main|Eurasiatic languages}}

Later in his life, Greenberg proposed that nearly all of the language families of northern [[Eurasia]] belong to a single higher-order family, which he termed [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]]. The only exception was [[Yeniseian languages|Yeniseian]], which has been related to a wider [[Dené–Caucasian]] grouping, also including [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]]. During 2008 [[Edward Vajda]] related Yeniseian to the [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dené]] languages of North America as a [[Dené–Yeniseian]] family.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/docs/dy_vajda_perspective.pdf |title=Edward Vajda |access-date=2009-03-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518115445/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/docs/dy_vajda_perspective.pdf |archive-date=May 18, 2008 }}, University of Alaska Fairbanks</ref>

The Eurasiatic grouping resembles the older [[Nostratic languages|Nostratic]] groupings of [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] and [[Vladislav Illich-Svitych]] by including [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], and [[Altaic languages|Altaic]]. It differs by including [[Nivkh language|Nivkh]], [[Classification of Japanese|Japonic]], [[Korean language|Korean]], and [[Ainu language|Ainu]] (which the Nostraticists had excluded from comparison because they are single languages rather than language families) and in excluding [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]. At about this time, Russian Nostraticists, notably [[Sergei Starostin]], constructed a revised version of Nostratic. It was slightly larger than Greenberg's grouping but it also excluded Afroasiatic.

Recently, a consensus has been emerging among proponents of the Nostratic hypothesis. Greenberg basically agreed with the Nostratic concept, though he stressed a deep internal division between its northern 'tier' (his Eurasiatic) and a southern 'tier' (principally Afroasiatic and Dravidian).

The American Nostraticist [[Allan R. Bomhard|Allan Bomhard]] considers Eurasiatic a branch of Nostratic, alongside other branches: Afroasiatic, [[Elamo-Dravidian languages|Elamo-Dravidian]], and [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]]. Similarly, [[Georgiy Starostin]] (2002) arrives at a tripartite overall grouping: he considers Afroasiatic, Nostratic and Elamite to be roughly equidistant and more closely related to each other than to any other language family.<ref>Starostin, George S.. “[https://www.academia.edu/651262/On_the_Genetic_Affiliation_of_the_Elamite_Language On the Genetic Affiliation of the Elamite Language].” (2005).</ref> [[Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics|Sergei Starostin's school]] has now included Afroasiatic in a broadly defined Nostratic. They reserve the term Eurasiatic to designate the narrower subgrouping, which comprises the rest of the macrofamily. Recent proposals thus differ mainly on the precise inclusion of Dravidian and Kartvelian.

Greenberg continued to work on this project after he was diagnosed with incurable pancreatic cancer and until he died during May 2001. His colleague and former student [[Merritt Ruhlen]] ensured the publication of the final volume of his Eurasiatic work (2002) after his death.