Editing James Madison (section)

==Congressman and party leader (1789–1801)==
{{Further|Presidency of George Washington}}

===Election to Congress===
{{Main|1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election}}

After Virginia ratified the constitution, Madison returned to New York and resumed his duties in the Congress of the Confederation. Madison unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. Senate in Virginia in 1788.<ref>{{cite web |title=Virginia 1788 U.S. Senate |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/tufts:va.ussenate.1788 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316091547/https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/tufts:va.ussenate.1788 |archive-date=March 16, 2020 |access-date=February 15, 2018 |work=Tufts Digital Collations and Archives |series=A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 |publisher=[[Tufts University]]}}, citing The Virginia Centinel, or, the Winchester Mercury (Winchester, VA). November 19, 1788., The New-Jersey Journal, and Political Intelligencer (Elizabethtown, NJ). December 10, 1788., and Mattern, David B., J. C. A. Stagg, Jeanne K. Cross and Susan Holbrook Perdue, ed. The Papers of James Madison, Congressional Series. Vol. 11. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 1977. 336, 339, 340.</ref> After Madison was defeated in his bid for the Senate, and with concerns for both his political career and the possibility that [[Patrick Henry]] and his allies would arrange for a second constitutional convention, Madison ran for the House of Representatives.{{sfn|Wills|2002|pages=38–39}}{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=247–248, 251–252}}{{sfn|National Archives Founders Online}} Henry and the Anti-Federalists were in firm control of the General Assembly in the autumn of 1788.{{sfn|National Archives Founders Online}} At Henry's behest, the Virginia legislature designed to deny Madison a seat by [[Gerrymandering in the United States|gerrymandering]] congressional districts. Henry and his supporters ensured Orange County was in a district heavily populated with Anti-Federalists, roughly three to one, to oppose Madison.{{sfn|National Archives Founders Online}}{{sfn|Cost|2021|page=162}}{{sfn|National Archives Founders Online}} Henry also recruited [[James Monroe]], a strong challenger to Madison.{{sfn|Cost|2021|page=162}} Locked in a difficult race against Monroe, Madison promised to support a series of constitutional amendments to protect individual liberties.{{sfn|Wills|2002|pages=38–39}} In an open letter, Madison wrote that, while he had opposed requiring alterations to the Constitution before ratification, he now believed that "amendments, if pursued with a proper moderation and in a proper mode ... may serve the double purpose of satisfying the minds of well-meaning opponents, and of providing additional guards in favor of liberty."{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=252–253}} Madison's promise paid off, as in [[1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election|Virginia's 5th district election]], he gained a seat in Congress with 57 percent of the vote.{{sfn|Labunski|2006|pages=148–150}}

Madison became a key adviser to Washington, who valued Madison's understanding of the Constitution.{{sfn|Wills|2002|pages=38–39}} Madison helped Washington write his [[First inauguration of George Washington|first inaugural address]] and also prepared the official House response to Washington's speech. He played a significant role in establishing and staffing the three [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet]] departments, and his influence helped Thomas Jefferson become the first [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]].{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=189–193, 203}} At the start of the [[1st United States Congress|first Congress]], he introduced a tariff bill similar to the one he had advocated for under the Articles of the Confederation,{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=258–259}} and Congress established a federal tariff on imports by enacting the [[Tariff of 1789]].{{sfn|Bordewich|2016|pp=100–102}} The following year, Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton introduced an ambitious economic program that called for the federal assumption of state debts and the funding of that debt through the issuance of federal [[Security (finance)|securities]]. Hamilton's plan favored [[Northern United States|Northern]] speculators and was disadvantageous to states, such as Virginia, that had already paid off most of their debt; Madison emerged as one of the principal congressional opponents of the plan.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=213–217}} After prolonged legislative deadlock, Madison, Jefferson, and Hamilton agreed to the [[Compromise of 1790]], which provided for the enactment of Hamilton's assumption plan, as part of the [[Funding Act of 1790]]. In return, Congress passed the [[Residence Act]], which established the federal capital district of [[Washington, D.C.]]{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=217–220}}

===Bill of Rights===
{{Main|United States Bill of Rights}}
During the first Congress, Madison took the lead in advocating for several constitutional amendments to the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]].{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=195–197}} His primary goals were to fulfill his 1789 campaign pledge and to prevent the calling of a second constitutional convention, but he also hoped to safeguard the rights and liberties of the people against broad actions of Congress and individual states. He believed that the enumeration of specific rights would fix those rights in the public mind and encourage judges to protect them.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pp=264–274}}{{sfn|Ketcham|1990|page=290}} After studying more than two hundred amendments that had been proposed at the state ratifying conventions,{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=197–199}} Madison introduced the Bill of Rights on June 8, 1789. His amendments contained numerous restrictions on the federal government and would protect, among other things, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and the right to peaceful assembly.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pp=267–269}} While most of his proposed amendments were drawn from the ratifying conventions, Madison was largely responsible for proposals to guarantee [[freedom of the press]], protect property from government seizure, and ensure [[jury trial]]s.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pp=197–199}} He also proposed an amendment to prevent states from abridging "equal rights of conscience, or freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases".{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pp=270–271}}

To prevent a permanent standing federal army, Madison proposed the [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Second Amendment]], which gave state-regulated militia groups and private citizens, the "right to bear arms." Madison and the Republicans desired a free government to be established by the consent of the governed, rather than by national military force.{{sfn|Cost|2021|p=331}}

Madison's Bill of Rights faced little opposition; he had largely co-opted the Anti-Federalist goal of amending the Constitution but had avoided proposing amendments that would alienate supporters of the Constitution.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=274–275}} His amendments were mostly adopted by the House of Representatives as proposed, but the Senate made several changes.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=275–276}} Madison's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states was eliminated, as was his change to the Constitution's preamble which he thought would be enhanced by including a prefatory paragraph indicating that governmental power is vested by the people.{{sfn|Labunski|2006|p=232}} He was disappointed that the Bill of Rights did not include protections against actions by state governments,{{efn|Portions of the Bill of Rights would later be [[Incorporation of the Bill of Rights|incorporated]] against the states.{{sfn | Labunski | 2006 | page=198}}}} but the passage of the document mollified some critics of the original constitution and shored up his support in Virginia.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=197–199}} Ten amendments were finally ratified on December 15, 1791, becoming known in their final form as the Bill of Rights.{{sfn|Bill of Rights, National Archives}}{{efn|One of the two unratified amendments became part of the Constitution in 1992 as the [[Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-seventh Amendment]]. The other unratified amendment, known as the [[Congressional Apportionment Amendment]], is technically still pending before the states.{{sfn|Thomas|2013|p=49}} }}

===Founding the Democratic–Republican Party===
{{Main|Democratic-Republican Party}}
[[File:Official Presidential portrait of Thomas Jefferson (by Rembrandt Peale, 1800).jpg|thumb|[[Thomas Jefferson]] founded the [[Democratic-Republican Party]] with Madison and broadly represented Southern interests.|alt=Image of Jefferson who was a close friend and confidant of Madison.]]

After 1790, the Washington administration became polarized into two main factions. One faction, led by Jefferson and Madison, broadly represented Southern interests and sought close relations with France. This faction became the [[Democratic-Republican Party]] opposition to Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton. The other faction, led by Hamilton and the [[Federalist Party|Federalist]]s, broadly represented Northern financial interests and favored close relations with Britain.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=207–208}} In 1791, Hamilton introduced a plan that called for the establishment of a [[History of central banking in the United States|national bank]] to provide loans to emerging industries and oversee the money supply.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=221–224}} Madison and the Democratic-Republican Party fought back against Hamilton's attempt to expand the power of the Federal Government with the formation of a national bank; Madison argued that under the Constitution, Congress did not have the power to create a federally empowered national bank.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=199-211}} Despite Madison's opposition, Congress passed a bill to create the [[First Bank of the United States]], which Washington signed into law in February 1791.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=221–224}} As Hamilton implemented his economic program and Washington continued to enjoy immense prestige as president, Madison became increasingly concerned that Hamilton would seek to abolish the federal republic in favor of a centralized monarchy.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|page=343}}

When Hamilton submitted his ''[[Report on Manufactures]]'', which called for federal action to stimulate the development of a diversified economy, Madison once again challenged Hamilton's proposal.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=343–347}} Along with Jefferson, Madison helped [[Philip Freneau]] establish the ''[[National Gazette]]'', a Philadelphia newspaper that attacked Hamilton's proposals.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=324–326}} In an essay in the newspaper in September 1792, Madison wrote that the country had divided into two factions: his faction, which believed "that mankind are capable of governing themselves", and Hamilton's faction, which allegedly sought the establishment of an aristocratic monarchy and was biased in favor of the wealthy.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=366–367}} Those opposed to Hamilton's economic policies, including many former Anti-Federalists, continued to strengthen the ranks of the Democratic–Republican Party,{{efn|The Democratic–Republican Party was often referred to as the "Republican Party". It was a separate entity from the later [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], which was founded in the 1850s.{{sfn|Meacham|2012|pp=405–406}} }} while those who supported the administration's policies supported Hamilton's Federalist Party.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=279–280}} In the [[1792 United States presidential election|1792 presidential election]], both major parties supported Washington for re-election, but the Democratic–Republicans sought to unseat Vice President [[John Adams]]. Because the Constitution's rules essentially precluded Jefferson from challenging Adams,{{efn|Because the Constitution required presidential electors to vote for at least one individual from outside their home state, electors from Virginia would not have been able to vote for both Washington and Jefferson.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|page=369}} }} the party backed New York Governor [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] for the vice presidency, but Adams still won.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=369–370}}

With Jefferson out of office after 1793, Madison became the de facto leader of the Democratic–Republican Party.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=305–306}} When Britain and France [[French Revolutionary Wars|went to war]] in 1793, the U.S. needed to determine which side to support.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=261–262}} While the differences between the Democratic–Republicans and the Federalists had previously centered on economic matters, foreign policy became an increasingly important issue, as Madison and Jefferson favored France and Hamilton favored Britain.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=373–374}} War with Britain became imminent in 1794 after the British seized hundreds of American ships that were trading with French colonies. Madison believed that a trade war with Britain would probably succeed, and would allow Americans to assert their independence fully. The [[British West Indies]], Madison maintained, could not live without American foodstuffs, but Americans could easily do without British manufacturers.{{sfn|Varg|1963|p=74}} Similarly, Madison argued that British industry was highly dependent on the demand of American consumers and would suffer heavily if this market was denied to the British.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCoy |first=Drew R. |date=October 1974 |title=Republicanism and American Foreign Policy: James Madison and the Political Economy of Commercial Discrimination, 1789 to 1794 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1921607 |journal=[[The William and Mary Quarterly]] |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=633–646 |doi=10.2307/1921607 |jstor=1921607 |access-date=September 1, 2024}}</ref> Washington secured friendly trade relations with Britain through the [[Jay Treaty]] of 1794.{{sfn|Wills|2002|pages=38–44}} Madison and his Democratic–Republican allies were outraged by the treaty; the Democratic–Republican [[Robert R. Livingston (chancellor)|Robert R. Livingston]] wrote to Madison that the treaty "sacrifices every essential interest and prostrates the honor of our country".{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=396–398}} Madison's strong opposition to the treaty led to a permanent break with Washington, ending their friendship.{{sfn|Wills|2002|pages=38–44}}

=== Marriage and family ===
[[File:Gilbert Stuart - Dolley Payne Madison (Mrs. James Madison) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[Dolley Payne Madison|Dolley Madison]]<br>''Painted by [[Gilbert Stuart]] c. 1804''|alt=Image of Dolley Madison, wife of James Madison.]]

On September 15, 1794, Madison married [[Dolley Payne Todd]], the 26-year-old widow of John Todd, a Quaker farmer who died during a [[yellow fever]] epidemic.{{sfn|Ketcham|1990|page=377}} Earlier that year, Madison and Dolley Todd had been formally introduced at Madison's request by [[Aaron Burr]]. Burr had become friends with her when staying at the same Philadelphia boardinghouse.{{sfn|Brant|1950|pp=406–407}} The two quickly became romantically engaged and prepared for a wedding that summer, but Todd suffered recurring illnesses because of her exposure to yellow fever in Philadelphia. They eventually traveled to [[Harewood (West Virginia)|Harewood in Virginia]] for their wedding. Only a few close family members attended, and [[Winchester, Virginia|Winchester]] reverend [[Alexander Balmain]] presided.{{sfn|Ketcham|2003|pages=376–380}} Dolley became a renowned figure in Washington, D.C., and excelled at hosting.{{sfn|Montpellier, Life of James Madison}}  She subsequently helped to establish the modern image of the first lady of the United States as an individual who has a leading role in the social affairs of the nation.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=479–480}}

Throughout his life, Madison maintained a close relationship with his father, James Sr. At age 50, Madison inherited the large plantation of Montpelier and other possessions, including his father's slaves.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=443–444}}{{sfn|Ketcham|2003|pp=370–371}} While Madison never had children with Dolley, he adopted her one surviving son, [[John Payne Todd]] (known as Payne), after the couple's marriage.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=321–322}} Some of his colleagues, such as Monroe and Burr, believed Madison's lack of offspring weighed on his thoughts, though he never spoke of any distress.{{sfn|Ketcham|2003|p=386}} [[Oral history]] has suggested Madison may have fathered a child with his enslaved half-sister, a cook named Coreen, but researchers were unable to gather the [[DNA evidence]] needed to determine the validity of the accusation.{{sfn|Mummolo|2007}}{{sfn|Nelson|2016|pages=19–20}}

===Adams presidency===
{{Main|Presidency of John Adams}}

Washington chose to retire after serving two terms and, in advance of the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 presidential election]], Madison helped convince Jefferson to run for the presidency.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=305–306}} Despite Madison's efforts, Federalist candidate John Adams defeated Jefferson, taking a narrow majority of the electoral vote.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=317–318}} Under the rules of the Electoral College then in place, Jefferson became vice president because he finished with the second-most electoral votes.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=408–400}} Madison, meanwhile, had declined to seek re-election to the House, and he returned to Montpelier.{{sfn|Burstein|Isenberg|2010|pages=321–322}} On Jefferson's advice, Adams considered appointing Madison to an American delegation charged with ending French attacks on American shipping, but Adams's cabinet members strongly opposed the idea.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=411–414}}

Though he was out of office, Madison remained a prominent Democratic–Republican leader in opposition to the Adams administration.{{sfn|Wills|2002|pages=48–49}}{{sfn|Chernow|2004|pp=571–574}} Madison and Jefferson believed that the Federalists were using the [[Quasi-War]] with France to justify the violation of constitutional rights by passing the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]], and they increasingly came to view Adams as a monarchist.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=415–417}} Both Madison and Jefferson expressed the belief that natural rights were non-negotiable even in war. Madison believed that the Alien and Sedition Acts formed a dangerous precedent, by giving the government the power to look past the natural rights of its people in the name of national security.<ref>[[s:Virginia Resolutions of 1798]]</ref>{{sfn|Time Magazine, July 5, 2004}} In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, Jefferson argued that the states had the power to [[Nullification (U.S. Constitution)|nullify]] federal law on the basis of the Constitution being a compact among the states. Madison rejected this view of nullification and urged that states respond to unjust federal laws through [[interposition]], a process by which a state legislature declared a law to be unconstitutional but did not take steps to actively prevent its enforcement. Jefferson's doctrine of nullification was widely rejected, and the incident damaged the Democratic–Republican Party as attention was shifted from the Alien and Sedition Acts to the unpopular nullification doctrine.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=417–421}}

In 1799, Madison was elected to the Virginia legislature. At the same time, Madison planned for Jefferson's campaign in the [[1800 United States presidential election|1800 presidential election]].{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=424–425}} Madison issued the [[Report of 1800]], which attacked the Alien and Sedition Acts as unconstitutional. That report held that Congress was limited to legislating on its [[Enumerated powers (United States)|enumerated powers]] and that punishment for sedition violated freedom of speech and freedom of the press. Jefferson embraced the report, and it became the unofficial Democratic–Republican platform for the 1800 election.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=428–430}} With the Federalists divided between supporters of Hamilton and Adams, and with news of the end of the Quasi-War not reaching the United States until after the election, Jefferson and his running mate, Aaron Burr, defeated Adams.{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=433–436}}{{sfn|Feldman|2017|pages=438–439}}