Editing Isocrates (section)

==Philosophy of rhetoric==
{{Rhetoric}}
According to George Norlin, Isocrates defined rhetoric as outward feeling and inward thought of not merely expression, but reason, feeling, and imagination. Like most who studied rhetoric before and after him, Isocrates believed it was used to persuade ourselves and others, but also used in directing public affairs. Isocrates described rhetoric as "that endowment of our human nature which raises us above mere animality and enables us to live the civilized life."<ref name="Norlin 1928 ix-xlvii">{{Cite book |last=Norlin |first=George |url=https://archive.org/details/isocrateswitheng02isocuoft |title=Isocrates |date=1928 |publisher=London W. Heinemann |pages=ix–xlvii}}</ref> Isocrates unambiguously defined his approach in the speech "[[Against the Sophists]]".<ref>Readings in Classical Rhetoric By Thomas W. Benson, Michael H. Prosser. [https://books.google.com/books?id=XjrJUcEnBnsC&dq=Isocrates++against+the+sophists&pg=PA43 p. 43]. {{ISBN|0-9611800-3-X}}</ref> This polemic was written to explain and advertise the reasoning and educational principles behind his new school. He promoted broad-based education by speaking against two types of teachers: the [[Eristic]]s, who disputed about theoretical and ethical matters, and the [[Sophist]]s, who taught political debate techniques.<ref name="autogenerated1990"/> Also, while Isocrates is viewed by many as being a rhetor and practicing rhetoric, he refers to his study as ''philosophia''—which he claims as his own. "Against the Sophists" is Isocrates' first published work where he gives an account of philosophy. His principal method is to contrast his ways of teaching with Sophism. While Isocrates does not go against the Sophist method of teaching as a whole, he emphasizes his disagreement with bad Sophistic practices.<ref name="Livingstone 2007 15-34">{{Cite journal |last=Livingstone |first=Niall |date=2007 |title=Writing Politics: Isocrates' Rhetoric of Philosophy |journal=Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=15–34}}</ref>

Isocrates' program of rhetorical education stressed the ability to use language to address practical problems, and he referred to his teachings as more of a philosophy than a school of rhetoric. He emphasized that students needed three things to learn: a natural aptitude which was inborn, knowledge training granted by teachers and textbooks, and applied practices designed by educators.<ref name="autogenerated1990" /> He also stressed civic education, training students to serve the state. Students would practice composing and delivering speeches on various subjects. He considered natural ability and practice to be more important than rules or principles of rhetoric. Rather than delineating static rules, Isocrates stressed "fitness for the occasion," or ''[[kairos]]'' (the rhetor's ability to adapt to changing circumstances and situations). His school lasted for over fifty years, in many ways establishing the core of liberal arts education as we know it today, including oratory, composition, history, citizenship, culture, and morality.<ref name="autogenerated1990" />