Editing Instructional theory (section)

==Critiques ==
[[Paulo Freire]]'s work appears to critique instructional approaches that adhere to the knowledge acquisition stance, and his work ''[[Pedagogy of the Oppressed]]'' has had a broad influence over a generation of [[United States|American]] educators with his critique of various "banking" models of [[education]] and analysis of the teacher-student relationship.<ref name=Freire>{{cite book|url=http://www.dsa-atlanta.org/pdf_docs/Macedo_intro_POTO.pdf|title=Pedagogy of the Oppressed|contribution=Introduction|contributor=Macedo, Donaldo|author=Freire, Paulo|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122142203/http://www.dsa-atlanta.org/pdf_docs/Macedo_intro_POTO.pdf|archive-date=November 22, 2009|url-status=dead|year=2000}}</ref>

Freire explains, "Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the students to memorize mechanically the narrated content. Worse yet, it turns them into "containers", into "receptacles" to be "filled" by the teacher. The more completely she fills the receptacles, the better a teacher she is. The more meekly the receptacles permit themselves to be filled, the better students they are."<ref name=Freire/> In this way he explains educator creates an act of depositing knowledge in a student. The student thus becomes a repository of knowledge. Freire explains that this system that diminishes creativity and knowledge suffers. Knowledge, according to Freire, comes about only through the learner by inquiry and pursuing the subjects in the world and through interpersonal interaction.

Freire further states, "In the banking [[Definitions of education|concept of education]], [[knowledge]] is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing. Projecting an absolute ignorance onto others, a characteristic of the ideology of oppression, negates [[education]] and [[knowledge]] as processes of inquiry. The teacher presents himself to his students as their necessary opposite; by considering their ignorance absolute, he justifies his own existence. The students, alienated like the slave in the Hegelian dialectic, accept their ignorance as justifying the teacher's existence—but, unlike the slave, they never discover that they educate the teacher."
Freire then offered an alternative stance and wrote, "The raison d'etre of libertarian education, on the other hand, lies in its drive towards reconciliation. [[Education]] must begin with the solution of the teacher-student contradiction, by reconciling the poles of the contradiction so that both are simultaneously teachers and students."<ref name=Freire/>

In the article, "A process for the critical analysis of instructional theory", the authors use an ontology-building process to review and analyze concepts across different instructional theories. Here are their findings:
* Concepts exist in theoretical writing that theorists do not address directly.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bostwick|first1=Jay A.|last2=Calvert|first2=Isaac Wade|last3=Francis|first3=Jenifer|last4=Hawkley|first4=Melissa|last5=Henrie|first5=Curtis R.|last6=Hyatt|first6=Frederick R.|last7=Juncker|first7=Janeel|last8=Gibbons|first8=Andrew S.|date=2014-08-19|title=A process for the critical analysis of instructional theory|journal=Educational Technology Research and Development|language=en|volume=62|issue=5|pages=571–582|doi=10.1007/s11423-014-9346-5|s2cid=58073930|issn=1042-1629|url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/facpub/2970}}</ref>
* These tacit concepts, which supply the ontological categories, enable a more detailed comparison of theories beyond specific terminologies.<ref name=":0" />
* Divergences between theories can be concealed behind common terms used by different theorists.<ref name=":0" />
* A false sense of understanding often arises from a cursory, uncritical reading of the theories.<ref name=":0" />
* Discontinuities and gaps are revealed within the theoretical literature when the tacit concepts are elicited.<ref name=":0" />