Editing Hypatia (section)

==Death==
===Background===
[[File:Alexandrian World Chronicle - 6v.jpg|thumb|right|Drawing from the [[Alexandrian World Chronicle]] depicting [[Theophilus I of Alexandria|Pope Theophilus of Alexandria]], [[gospel]] in hand, standing triumphantly atop the [[Serapeum of Alexandria|Serapeum]] in 391 AD{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=60}}]]

From 382 – 412, the bishop of Alexandria was [[Theophilus I of Alexandria|Theophilus]].{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=196}} Theophilus was militantly opposed to Iamblichean Neoplatonism{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=196}} and, in 391, he demolished the Serapeum.{{sfn|Wessel|2004|page=49}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|pages=57–61}} Despite this, Theophilus tolerated Hypatia's school and seems to have regarded Hypatia as his ally.{{sfn|Booth|2017}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=196}}{{sfn|Deakin|2007|page=82}} Theophilus supported the bishopric of Hypatia's pupil Synesius,{{sfn|Booth|2017}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=196}} who describes Theophilus in his letters with love and admiration.{{sfn|Deakin|2007|page=82}}{{sfn|Dzielska|1996|page=95}} Theophilus also permitted Hypatia to establish close relationships with the Roman prefects and other prominent political leaders.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=196}} Partly as a result of Theophilus's tolerance, Hypatia became extremely popular with the people of Alexandria and exerted profound political influence.{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=195–196}}

Theophilus died unexpectedly in 412.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=196}} He had been training his nephew [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]], but had not officially named him as his successor.{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=196–197}} A violent power struggle over the [[diocese]] broke out between Cyril and his rival [[Timothy I of Alexandria|Timothy]]. Cyril won and immediately began to punish the opposing faction; he closed the churches of the [[Novatianism|Novatianists]], who had supported Timothy, and confiscated their property.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=197}} Hypatia's school seems to have immediately taken a strong distrust toward the new bishop,{{sfn|Deakin|2007|page=82}}{{sfn|Dzielska|1996|page=95}} as evidenced by the fact that, in all his vast correspondences, Synesius only ever wrote one letter to Cyril, in which he treats the younger bishop as inexperienced and misguided.{{sfn|Dzielska|1996|page=95}} In a letter written to Hypatia in 413, Synesius requests her to intercede on behalf of two individuals impacted by the ongoing civil strife in Alexandria,{{sfn|Dzielska|2008|page=139}}{{sfn|Deakin|2007|page=83}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=310–311}} insisting, "You always have power, and you can bring about good by using that power."{{sfn|Dzielska|2008|page=139}} He also reminds her that she had taught him that a Neoplatonic philosopher must introduce the highest moral standards to political life and act for the benefit of their fellow citizens.{{sfn|Dzielska|2008|page=139}}

According to [[Socrates Scholasticus]], in 414, following an exchange of hostilities and a Jewish-led massacre, Cyril closed all the [[synagogue]]s in Alexandria, confiscated all the property belonging to the Jews, and [[History of the Jews in Egypt#Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire|expelled a number of Jews from the city]]; Scholasticus suggests all the Jews were expelled, while [[John of Nikiû|John of Nikiu]] notes it was only those involved in the massacre.<ref>{{citation|last=Seaver|first=James Everett|url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/6501|title=Persecution of the Jews in the Roman Empire (300-438)|date=1952|publisher=Lawrence, University of Kansas Publications, 1952.|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=John of Nikiu: The Life of Hypatia|url=http://www.faculty.umb.edu/gary_zabel/Courses/Phil%20281b/Philosophy%20of%20Magic/Arcana/Neoplatonism/hypatia-bio-john.html|access-date=2020-07-19|website=www.faculty.umb.edu}}</ref>{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=197}} [[Orestes (prefect)|Orestes]], the Roman prefect of Alexandria, who was also a close friend of Hypatia{{sfn|Booth|2017}} and a recent convert to Christianity,{{sfn|Booth|2017}}{{sfn|Wessel|2004|pages=36–37}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=312}} was outraged by Cyril's actions and sent a scathing report to the emperor.{{sfn|Booth|2017}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=197}}{{sfn|Wessel|2004|page=36}} The conflict escalated and a riot broke out in which the ''[[parabalani]]'', a group of Christian clerics under Cyril's authority, nearly killed Orestes.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=197}} As punishment, Orestes had Ammonius, the monk who had started the riot, publicly tortured to death.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=197}}{{sfn|Wessel|2004|page=37}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=306}} Cyril tried to proclaim Ammonius a martyr,{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=197}}{{sfn|Wessel|2004|page=37}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=306–307}} but Christians in Alexandria were disgusted,{{sfn|Wessel|2004|page=37}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=307, 313}} since Ammonius had been killed for inciting a riot and attempting to murder the governor, not for his faith.{{sfn|Wessel|2004|page=37}} Prominent Alexandrian Christians intervened and forced Cyril to drop the matter.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=197}}{{sfn|Wessel|2004|page=37}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=307, 313}} Nonetheless, Cyril's feud with Orestes continued.{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=307}} Orestes frequently consulted Hypatia for advice{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=197–198}}{{sfn|Novak|2010|pages=239–240}} because she was well-liked among both pagans and Christians alike, she had not been involved in any previous stages of the conflict, and she had an impeccable reputation as a wise counselor.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=198}}

Despite Hypatia's popularity, Cyril and his allies attempted to discredit her and undermine her reputation.{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=199–200}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=312–313}} Socrates Scholasticus mentions rumors accusing Hypatia of preventing Orestes from reconciling with Cyril.{{sfn|Novak|2010|pages=239–240}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=312–313}} Traces of other rumors that spread among the Christian populace of Alexandria may be found in the writings of the seventh-century Egyptian [[Copts|Coptic]] bishop [[John of Nikiû]],{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=200}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=312–313}} who alleges in his ''Chronicle'' that Hypatia had engaged in [[Satanism|satanic]] practices and had intentionally hampered the church's influence over Orestes:{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=312–313}}<ref name="johnofnikiu" /><ref>John, Bishop of Nikiû, Chronicle 84.87–103</ref><ref name="Grout">{{citation|last1=Grout|first1=James|title=Hypatia|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/greece/paganism/hypatia.html|website=Penelope|publisher=University of Chicago}}</ref>

<blockquote>And in those days there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments of music, and she beguiled many people through her Satanic wiles. And the governor of the city honoured her exceedingly; for she had beguiled him through her magic. And he ceased attending church as had been his custom... And he not only did this, but he drew many believers to her, and he himself received the unbelievers at his house.<ref name="johnofnikiu">{{citation|url=http://cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hypatia-bio-john.html |title=Chronicle 84.87–103 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100731135526/http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hypatia-bio-john.html |archive-date=2010-07-31 }}</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Mort de la philosophe Hypatie.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Illustration by [[Louis Figuier]] in ''Vies des savants illustres, depuis l'antiquité jusqu'au dix-neuvième siècle'' from 1866, representing the author's imagining of what the assault against Hypatia might have looked like]]

===Murder===
According to [[Socrates Scholasticus]], during the Christian season of [[Lent]] in March 415, a mob of Christians under the leadership of a [[Reader (liturgy)|lector]] named Peter raided Hypatia's carriage as she was travelling home.{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|pages=114–115}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=313}} They dragged her into a building known as the ''[[Caesareum of Alexandria|Kaisarion]]'', a former pagan temple and center of the [[Imperial cult of ancient Rome|Roman imperial cult]] in Alexandria that had been converted into a Christian church.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=198}}{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=313}} There, the mob stripped Hypatia naked and murdered her using ''[[Ostracon|ostraka]]'',{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Dzielska|1996|page=93}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|pages=115–116}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=198–199}} which can either be translated as "[[roof tiles]]", "[[Oyster|oyster shells]]" or simply "shards".{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}} Damascius adds that they also cut out her eyeballs.{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=116}} They tore her body into pieces and dragged her limbs through the town to a place called Cinarion, where they set them on fire.{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=116}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=198–199}} According to Watts, this was in line with the traditional manner in which Alexandrians carried the bodies of the "vilest criminals" outside the city limits to cremate them as a way of symbolically purifying the city.{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=116}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=199}} Although Socrates Scholasticus never explicitly identifies Hypatia's murderers, they are commonly assumed to have been members of the ''[[parabalani]]''.{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=235–236, 314}} Christopher Haas disputes this identification, arguing that the murderers were more likely "a crowd of Alexandrian laymen".{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=314}}

Socrates Scholasticus presents Hypatia's murder as entirely politically motivated and makes no mention of any role that Hypatia's paganism might have played in her death.{{sfn|Cameron|Long|Sherry|1993|page=59}} Instead, he reasons that "she fell a victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop."{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}<ref>''Ecclesiastical History'', [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/hypatia.html Bk VII: Chap. 15] (miscited as VI:15).</ref> Socrates Scholasticus unequivocally condemns the actions of the mob, declaring, "Surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort."{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=199}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=117}}

The Canadian mathematician Ari Belenkiy has argued that Hypatia may have been involved in a controversy over the date of the Christian holiday of Easter 417 and that she was killed on the [[March equinox|vernal equinox]] while making astronomical observations.{{sfn|Belenkiy|2010|pages=9–13}} Classical scholars [[Alan Cameron (classical scholar)|Alan Cameron]] and Edward J. Watts both dismiss this hypothesis, noting that there is absolutely no evidence in any ancient text to support any part of the hypothesis.{{sfn|Cameron|2016|page=190}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=157}}

===Aftermath===
Hypatia's death sent shockwaves throughout the empire;{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=200}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=121}} for centuries, philosophers had been seen as effectively untouchable during the displays of public violence that sometimes occurred in Roman cities and the murder of a female philosopher at the hand of a mob was seen as "profoundly dangerous and destabilizing".{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=121}} Although no concrete evidence was ever discovered definitively linking Cyril to the murder of Hypatia,{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=200}} it was widely believed that he had ordered it.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=200}}{{sfn|Novak|2010|pages=239–240}} Even if Cyril had not directly ordered the murder, his [[smear campaign]] against Hypatia had inspired it. The Alexandrian council was alarmed at Cyril's conduct and sent an embassy to Constantinople.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=200}} The advisors of [[Theodosius II]] launched an investigation to determine Cyril's role in the murder.{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=117}}

The investigation resulted in the emperors [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] and Theodosius II issuing an edict in autumn of 416, which attempted to remove the ''parabalani'' from Cyril's power and instead place them under the authority of Orestes.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=200}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=117}}{{sfn|Dzielska|1996|pages=95–96}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=436}} The edict restricted the parabalani from attending "any public spectacle whatever" or entering "the meeting place of a municipal council or a courtroom."{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=67, 436}} It also severely restricted their recruitment by limiting the total number of parabalani to no more than five hundred.{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=436}} According to [[Damascius]], Cyril allegedly only managed to escape even more serious punishment by bribing one of Theodosius's officials.{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=117}} Watts argues that Hypatia's murder was the turning point in Cyril's fight to gain political control of Alexandria.{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=197–200}} Hypatia had been the [[linchpin]] holding Orestes's opposition against Cyril together, and, without her, the opposition quickly collapsed.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=200}} Two years later, Cyril overturned the law placing the ''parabalani'' under Orestes's control and, by the early 420s, Cyril had come to dominate the Alexandrian council.{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=197–200}}