Editing House of Valois (section)

==Italian Wars==
[[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] succeeded his father in 1483, at the age of 13. During his minority the nobles again attempted to seize power, but they were defeated by Charles' sister [[Anne of France]]. Charles' marriage to [[Anne of Brittany]] prevented a future total Habsburg encirclement of France.

As the heir of the House of Anjou, Charles VIII decided to press his claim to the Kingdom of Naples. It was the beginning of the [[Italian Wars]]. In September 1494 Charles invaded Italy with 25,000 men, and attained his object by 22 February 1495, virtually unopposed. But the speed and power of the French advance frightened the powers of Italy. The [[League of Venice]], which consisted of the Republics of Venice and Florence, the Duchies of Milan and Mantua, the Kings of Spain and Naples, the Emperor and the Pope, united against the French. Charles, who did not wish to be trapped in Naples, had to fight against them in the [[Battle of Fornovo]]. Charles succeeded in returning to France, but all his conquests and booty were lost. The debts he incurred for the campaign prevented him from resuming the war, and he died in an accident in 1498. With his death the senior line of the House of Valois became extinct. He was succeeded by his cousin, the Duke of Orleans, who became [[Louis XII of France]].

Louis XII married his predecessor's widow, Anne of Brittany, in order to retain that province for France. The new king also continued his predecessor's policy in Italy. The Dukes of Orleans were descended from [[Valentina Visconti, Duchess of Orléans|Valentina Visconti]], and through her claimed the Duchy of Milan. From 1499 to 1512, excepting a brief period in 1500, Louis XII was Duke of Milan. French military activity continued in Italy, with various leagues formed to counter the dominant power. Louis died without a son, and was succeeded by his cousin and son-in-law, Francis of Angoulême, who became [[Francis I of France]] in 1515.

Francis I belonged to a cadet branch of the House of Orleans. In the [[Battle of Marignano]], Francis defeated the Swiss, who had ousted his predecessor from Milan, and took control of the duchy. In the [[Imperial election of 1519|Imperial Election of 1519]], the Kings of Spain, France, and England fought for the imperial title. The King of Spain was a grandson of the deceased emperor, but the electors thought him to be a foreigner as much as the French king. The kings resorted to bribes, and the Spanish king became [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]].

The election of the Spanish king to the imperial throne made him the first monarch in Europe, both in title and in reality. Annoyed, the French king demanded that the emperor pay homage for Flanders and Artois; the emperor responded by reasserting his claim to the duchy of Burgundy. The rivalry of the French royal house with the Habsburgs dominated the rest of the sixteenth century. The emperor took Milan from the French in 1521. The King of England and the pope supported the emperor. France was surrounded by enemies on all sides. Domestic troubles led to the defection of [[Charles III, Duke of Bourbon]] and Constable of France, to the emperor. In 1525, at the [[Battle of Pavia]], the French were defeated and the king himself was captured. Francis obtained his release through the Treaty of Madrid, in which he renounced claims in Naples and Milan, surrendered Burgundy to Spain, abandoned sovereignty over Flanders and Artois, and gave up two of his sons as hostages. Francis repudiated the treaty. Having often found himself alone in his struggle against the emperor, Francis formed the [[Franco-Ottoman alliance]] with the sultan, to the scandal of Christian Europe. Francis supported the conversion of the German princes to Protestantism, as it increased his potential allies against the emperor. In his own dominions, the Protestants were suppressed.

[[Henry II of France|Henry II]] succeeded to the throne in 1547. He continued his father's policies, as did his successors. He persecuted Protestants in his kingdom, while Protestants abroad were his allies. Henry captured the [[Three Bishoprics|three bishoprics]] of [[Metz]], [[Toul]], and [[Verdun]]. French offensives failed in Italy. In 1556, Charles V abdicated, splitting the Habsburg dominions between his son, [[Philip II of Spain]], who gained Spain and the Low Countries, and his brother [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], who became emperor. The French retook Calais after England allied with Spain. The [[Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis]] (1559) ended the Italian Wars. The French lost all their Italian territories except Saluzzo, and were confirmed in the possession of Calais and the three bishoprics. It was a diplomatic victory for Philip II, who gave up nothing which belonged to himself. The Spanish king retained [[Franche-Comté]] and was confirmed in his possession of Milan, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the State of Presidi, making him the most powerful ruler in Italy.