Editing Hormizd IV (section)

==War against the Byzantines==
[[File:Roman-Persian Frontier in Late Antiquity.svg|thumb|right|300px|Map of the Byzantine-Sasanian frontier in [[Late Antiquity]]]]
From his father, Hormizd had inherited an [[Roman–Persian War of 572–591|ongoing war]] against the [[Byzantine Empire|East Roman (Byzantine) Empire]]. Negotiations of peace had just begun with the Emperor [[Tiberius II]], who offered to give up all claims to [[Sasanian Armenia|Armenia]] and interchange the Byzantine-occupied [[Arzanene]] for the Iranian-occupied [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]] (which was an important Byzantine stronghold).{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004|pp=466–467}}{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=249}} Hormizd, however, further demanded the payment of the yearly tribute that was made during the reign of [[Justinian I]] ({{reign|527|565}}), and thus caused the negotiations to be broken off.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=160–162}} No campaign in [[Mesopotamia]] was undertaken by either of the empires due to the negotiations, however they continued to clash in Armenia, where [[Varaz Vzur]] succeeded [[Tamkhosrow]] as the new Sasanian governor of Armenia.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=162}}

The Byzantines were successful at their endeavors, securing a noteworthy victory under the commanders [[Cours (Byzantine general)|Cours]] and [[John Mystacon]], albeit also suffering a defeat at the hands of the Sasanians.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=162}} In early 580, the clients and vassals of the Sasanians, the [[Lakhmids]], were defeated at the hands of the [[Ghassanids]], vassals of the Byzantines.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=162}} In the same year, a Byzantine army ravaged [[Garamig ud Nodardashiragan]], reaching as far as [[Media (region)|Media]].{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=163}}{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004|pp=466–467}} Around the same time, [[Bacurius III of Iberia|Bakur III]], the Sasanian client king of [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]], died, leaving behind two sons who were underage. Hormizd took advantage of the situation by abolishing the Iberian monarchy, i.e. the [[Chosroid dynasty]]. He appointed his son Khosrow as the governor of [[Caucasian Albania]], who negotiated with the Iberian aristocracy and won their support, so successfully incorporating the country into the Sasanian Empire.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=163}}{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}}{{sfn|Suny|1994|p=25}}

The following year (581), an ambitious campaign by the Byzantine commander [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]], supported by Ghassanid forces under [[al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith|al-Mundhir III]], targeted the Sasanian capital of [[Ctesiphon]]. The combined force moved south along the river [[Euphrates]], accompanied by a fleet of ships. The army stormed the fortress of [[Anah|Anatha]] and moved on until it reached the region of [[Beth Aramaye]] in central Mesopotamia, near Ctesiphon. There they found the bridge over the Euphrates destroyed by the Iranians.{{snf|Shahîd|1995|pp=413–419}}{{snf|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=163–165}} In response to Maurice's advance, the Iranian general [[Adarmahan]] was ordered to operate in northern Mesopotamia, threatening the Byzantine army's supply line.{{sfn|Shahîd|1995|p=414}} Adarmahan raided [[Osrhoene]], and was successful in capturing its capital, [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]].{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=164}} He then marched his army toward [[Raqqa|Callinicum]] on the Euphrates. With the possibility of a march to Ctesiphon gone, Maurice was forced to retreat. The retreat was arduous for the tired army, and Maurice and al-Mundhir exchanged recriminations for the expedition's failure. However, they cooperated in forcing Adarmahan to withdraw and defeated him at Callinicum.<ref>{{harvnb|Shahîd|1995|p=416}}; {{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=165}}.</ref>

Tiberius tried afterwards to renew negotiations by sending Zachariah to the frontier to meet Andigan.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=166}} The negotiations broke off once more after Andigan attempted to pressurize him by drawing the attention of the nearby Iranian contingent led by Tamkhosrow.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=166}} In 582, Tamkhosrow, along with Adarmahan, invaded Byzantine territory and headed for the town of [[Constantia (Osrhoene)|Constantina]]. Maurice, who had been expecting and preparing for such an attack, fought the Iranians outside the city in June 582. The Iranian army suffered a heavy defeat, and Tamkhosrow was killed.{{sfn|Martindale|Jones|Morris|1992|pp=1215–1216}}{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=166}} Not long afterwards, the deteriorating physical condition of Tiberius forced Maurice to return immediately to [[Constantinople]] to assume the crown.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004|pp=466–467}} Meanwhile, John Mystacon, who had replaced Maurice as the Commander of the East, attacked the Sasanians at the junction of the [[Batman River|Nymphius]] and the [[Tigris]], but was defeated by the Iranian general [[Kardarigan (6th century)|Kardarigan]].{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=167}} 
[[Image:Maurice Solidus sb0477a.jpg|thumb|left|[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]] of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] ({{reign|582|602}})]]
In 583, the objective of the Iranian army was to recapture the fortress [[Aphumon]], which had been seized by Maurice in 578. However, while they besieged the fortress, the Romans besieged [[Akbas]], a newly constructed fortress east of the Nymphius and thus close to the Roman frontier. This diverted the attention of the Iranian soldiers at Aphumon, who went to relieve Akbas. By the end of year, however, the Romans had destroyed the fortress.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=167}}{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=245}} Hormizd then sued for peace: in 584, an Iranian envoy arrived at Constantinople, while a Roman envoy arrived at Ctesiphon. The negotiations, however, broke off once again.{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=245}} Around the same time, [[Philippicus (comes excubitorum)|Philippicus]] was appointed the new Commander of the East.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=167}}

In 585, Kardarigan went on the offensive, besieging the Byzantine base of [[Monocarton]]. The siege failed, and he then marched north to [[Martyropolis]], Philippicus's base; after sacking the church of [[John the Baptist]] near the city, however, he returned to Iranian territory, most likely Armenia. In the spring of 586, Hormizd once again attempted to make peace, and sent [[Mahbod (envoy)|Mahbod]] to negotiate with Philippicus at [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]]. Negotiations, however, broke down once more after the Iranians demanded gold in exchange for peace.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=167}}{{sfn|Bonner|2020|pp=245–246}} Not long after, an Iranian force—led by Kardarigan, Aphraates and Mahbod—suffered a heavy defeat against the Byzantines at the [[Battle of Solachon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=167–169}}; {{harvnb|Whitby|Whitby|1986|pp=44–49}}.</ref> The victory was followed by destructive raids into [[Corduene]] and [[Arbayistan]]. In the following year, the new commander of the east, [[Heraclius the Elder]], captured three fortresses near Dara.{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=246}} The Iranians took advantage of the discord in the Roman army between 588 and 589, and managed to successfully occupy Martyropolis in 589 with the help of a [[turncoat]] Roman officer.{{sfn|Bonner|2020|pp=245–247}}