Editing Horace (section)

====Poet====
[[File:Fedor Bronnikov 014.jpg|thumb|Horace reads his poems in front of [[Gaius Maecenas|Maecenas]], by [[Fyodor Bronnikov]]]]
[[File:Adalbert_von_Rössler_Horaz.jpg|thumb|Horace reciting his verses, by [[Adalbert von Rössler]].]]

The ''Epodes'' belong to [[iambic poetry]]. Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language;<ref>Christopher Brown, in ''A Companion to the Greek Lyric Poets'', D.E. Gerber (ed), Leiden 1997, pages 13–88</ref><ref>Douglas E. Gerber, ''Greek Iambic Poetry'', Loeb Classical Library (1999), Introduction pages i–iv</ref> sometimes, it is referred to as ''blame poetry''.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', C.U.P., 8</ref> ''Blame poetry'', or ''shame poetry'', is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Each poem normally has a archetype person Horace decides to shame, or teach a lesson to. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of [[Archilochus]]. Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of [[Carthage]] a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 6</ref> These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like [[Sextus Pompey]], all jockeying for a bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the [[Third Servile War]] under [[Spartacus]], eight years before Horace's birth.<ref>R. Conway, ''New Studies of a Great Inheritance'', 49–50</ref> As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems:

{{Quotation|At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which the Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community.|[[V. G. Kiernan]]<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 18–19</ref>}}

Horace's Hellenistic background is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation.<ref>F. Muecke, ''The Satires'', 109–10</ref> Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires.<ref name="Satires 1.6"/> The way was opened for him by his friend, the poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his ''[[Eclogues]]''. An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well.<ref>R. Lyne, ''Augustan Poetry and Society'', 599</ref> On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance."<ref>J. Griffin, ''Horace in the Thirties'', 6</ref> There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident.<ref name="ReferenceB">R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 10</ref> His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However, most Romans considered the civil wars to be the result of ''contentio dignitatis'', or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace.<ref>D. Mankin, ''Horace: Epodes'', 5</ref>

In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to [[Brundisium]], described in one of his poems<ref>''Satires'' 1.5</ref> as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact the journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiate the [[Treaty of Tarentum]] with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires).<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off [[Palinurus]] in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning.<ref>''Odes'' 3.4.28</ref><ref group="nb">''Odes'' 3.4.28: "nec (me extinxit) Sicula Palinurus unda"; "nor did Palinurus extinguish me with Sicilian waters". Maecenas' involvement is recorded by [[Appian]] ''Bell. Civ.'' 5.99 but Horace's ode is the only historical reference to his own presence there, depending however on interpretation. (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 10)</ref> There are also some indications in his verses that he was with Maecenas at the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony.<ref>''Epodes'' 1 and 9</ref><ref group="nb">The point is much disputed among scholars and hinges on how the text is interpreted. ''Epodes'' 9 for example may offer proof of Horace's presence if 'ad hunc frementis' ('gnashing at this' man i.e. the traitrous Roman ) is a misreading of 'at huc...verterent' (but hither...they fled) in lines describing the defection of the Galatian cavalry, "ad hunc frementis verterunt bis mille equos / Galli canentes Caesarem" (R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 12).</ref> By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his [[Horace's Villa|Sabine farm]], probably not long after the publication of the first book of ''Satires''. The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 15</ref> It signalled his identification with the Octavian regime yet, in the second book of ''Satires'' that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of ''[[Equites|eques Romanus]]'' (Roman 'cavalryman', 'knight'),<ref>''Satires'' 2.7.53</ref> perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury.<ref>R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 11</ref>