Editing Hopi (section)

== Hopi-U.S. relations, 1849–1946 ==
[[File:Clevelandart 1923.1078.jpg|thumb|Hopi polychrome ceramic water canteen, ca. 1870, Cleveland Museum of Art]]
In 1849, [[James S. Calhoun]] was appointed official [[Indian agent]] of [[Indian Affairs]] for the Southwest Territory of the U.S. He had headquarters in [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] and was responsible for all of the Indian residents of the area. The first formal meeting between the Hopi and the U.S. government occurred in 1850 when seven Hopi leaders made the trip to Santa Fe to meet with Calhoun. They wanted the government to provide protection against the [[Navajo people|Navajo]], a [[Southern Athabascan]]-speaking tribe who were distinct from Apaches. At this time, the Hopi leader was Nakwaiyamtewa.

The US established [[Fort Defiance, Arizona|Fort Defiance]] in 1851 in [[Arizona]], and placed troops in [[Navajo Country|Navajo country]] to deal with their threats to the Hopi. General James J. Carleton, with the assistance of [[Kit Carson]], was assigned to travel through the area. They "captured" the Navajo natives and forced them to the fort. As a result of the [[Long Walk of the Navajo]], the Hopi enjoyed a short period of peace.<ref name="Dockstader, Frederick J. 1940">Dockstader, Frederick J. "Hopi History, 1850–1940." In Alonso Ortiz, vol. ed., Southwest, vol. 9, in William C. Sturtevant, gnl. ed., ''Handbook of North American Indians''. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1979: 524–532.</ref>

In [[1847]], [[Mormons]] settled in [[Utah]] and tried to convert the Indians to [[Mormonism]].<ref name="ReferenceA" /> [[Jacob Hamblin]], a Mormon missionary, first made a trip into Hopi country in 1858. He was on good terms with the Hopi Indians, and in 1875 an [[LDS Church]] was built on Hopi land.<ref name="Dockstader, Frederick J. 1940" />

===Education===
In 1875, the English trader Thomas Keam escorted Hopi leaders to meet President [[Chester A. Arthur]] in [[Washington D.C.]] ''Loololma,'' village chief of [[Oraibi]] at the time, was very impressed with Washington.<ref name="Whitely, Peter M. 1988" /> In 1887, a federal boarding school was established at [[Keams Canyon]] for Hopi children.<ref name="Dockstader, Frederick J. 1940" />

The [[Oraibi, Arizona|Oraibi]] people did not support the school and refused to send their children {{convert|35|mi|km}} from their villages. The Keams Canyon School was organized to teach the Hopi youth the ways of European-American civilization. It forced them to use English and give up their traditional ways.<ref name="Whitely, Peter M. 1988" /> The children were made to abandon their tribal identity and completely take on European-American culture.<ref>Pecina, Ron and Pecina, Bob. ''Neil David's Hopi World''. Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-7643-3808-3}}</ref> Children were forced to give up their traditional names, clothing and language. Boys, who were also forced to cut their long hair, were taught European farming and carpentry skills. Girls were taught ironing, sewing, and "civilized" dining. The school also reinforced European-American religions. The [[American Baptist Home Mission Society]] made students attend services every morning and religious teachings during the week.<ref>Adams, David Wallace. "Schooling the Hopi: Federal Indian Policy Writ Small, 1887–1917", ''The Pacific Historical Review'', Vol. 48, No. 3. University of California Press, (1979): 335–356.</ref> In 1890, Commissioner of [[Indian Affairs]] [[Thomas Jefferson Morgan]] arrived in Hopi country with other government officials to review the progress of the new school. Seeing that few students were enrolled, they returned with federal troops who threatened to arrest the Hopi parents who refused to send their children to school, with Morgan forcibly taking children to fill the school.<ref name="Whitely, Peter M. 1988" />

===Hopi land===

Agriculture is an important part of Hopi culture, and their villages are spread out across the northern part of Arizona. The Hopi and the Navajo did not have a conception of land being bounded and divided. The Hopi people had settled in permanent villages, while the nomadic Navajo people moved around the four corners. Both lived on the land that their ancestors did. On December 16, 1882, [[President Chester A. Arthur]] issued an executive order creating a reservation for the Hopi. It was smaller than the [[Navajo Reservation]], which was the largest in the country.<ref name="Whitely, Peter M. 1988" />

The [[Hopi reservation]] was originally a rectangle 55 by 70 miles (88.5 by 110&nbsp;km) in the middle of the Navajo Reservation, with their village lands taking about half of the land.<ref name="Johansson, S. Ryan 1978">Johansson, S. Ryan., and Preston, S.H. "Tribal Demography: The Hopi and Navaho Populations as Seen through Manuscripts from the 1900 U.S. Census", ''Social Science History'', Vol. 3, No. 1. Duke University Press, (1978): 1–33.</ref> The reservation prevented encroachment by white settlers, but it did not protect the Hopis against the Navajos.<ref name="Whitely, Peter M. 1988" />

The Hopi and the Navajo fought over land, and they had different models of sustainability, as the Navajo were sheepherders. Eventually the Hopi went before the Senate Committee of Interior and Insular Affairs to ask them to help provide a solution to the dispute. The tribes argued over approximately {{convert|1800000|acre|km2}} of land in northern Arizona.<ref>United States Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. ''Navajo-Hopi Land Dispute: Hearing before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1974'', Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, (1974): 1–3.</ref> In 1887 the U.S. government passed the [[Dawes Allotment Act]]. The purpose was to divide up communal tribal land into individual allotments by household, to encourage a model of European-American style subsistence farming on individually owned family plots of {{convert|640|acre|km2}} or less. The Department of Interior would declare remaining land "surplus" to the tribe's needs and make it available for purchase by U.S. citizens. For the Hopi, the Act would destroy their ability to farm, their main means of income{{citation needed|date=August 2024}}. The [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] did not set up land allotments in the Southwest.<ref name="hopieducationfund.org">[http://www.hopieducationfund.org/partners.html Hopi Education Endowment Fund] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091011060917/http://www.hopieducationfund.org/partners.html |date=2009-10-11 }}. Accessed: November 13, 2009.</ref>

===Oraibi split===
[[File:Oraibi1.jpg|thumb|Abandoned house and view from Oraibi village|alt=]]

The chief of the Oraibi, Lololoma, enthusiastically supported Hopi education, but his people were divided on this issue.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Talayesva|first1=Don. C.|title=Sun Chief: The Autobiography of a Hopi Indian|date=1970|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, CT|isbn=978-0-300-19103-5|page=93|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dg_AQAAQBAJ&q=978-0-300-19103-5&pg=PR4}}</ref> Most of the village was conservative and refused to allow their children to attend school. These natives were referred to as "hostiles" because they opposed the American government and its attempts to force assimilation. The rest of the Oraibi were called "friendlies" because of their acceptance of white people and culture. The "hostiles" refused to let their children attend school. In 1893, the Oraibi Day School was opened in the Oraibi village. Although the school was in the village, traditional parents still refused to allow their children to attend. Frustrated with this, the US government often resorted to intimidation and force in the form of imprisonment as a means of punishment.

In November 1894, Captain Frank Robinson and a group of soldiers were dispatched to enter the village and arrested 18 of the Hopi resisters. Among those arrested were Habema (Heevi'ima) and Lomahongyoma. In the following days, they realized they had not captured all Hopi resisters and Sergeant Henry Henser was sent back to capture Potopa, a Hopi medicine man, known as "one of the most dangerous of resisters".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Matthew |title=Education beyond the Mesas |publisher=University of Nebraska |year=2010 |isbn=9780803216266}}</ref> Eager to rid Orayvi of all resisters, government officials sent 19 Hopi men who they saw as troublesome to [[Alcatraz Prison]], where they stayed for a year.<ref name="Whitely, Peter M. 1988" /> The US government thought they undermined the Hopi resistance, however this only intensified ill feelings of bitterness and resistance towards the government. When the Hopi prisoners were sent home, they claimed that government officials told them that they did not have to send their children to school, but when they returned, Indian agents denied that this was promised to them.<ref name=":0" /> Another Oraibi leader, ''Lomahongyoma'', competed with ''Lololoma'' for village leadership. In 1906 the village split after a conflict between hostiles and friendlies. The conservative hostiles left and formed a new village, known as ''[[Hotevilla-Bacavi, Arizona|Hotevilla]]''.<ref name="Dockstader, Frederick J. 1940" />