Editing History of music (section)

===China===
====Shang and Zhou====
{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=25em|align=right|quote=They strike the bells, ''kin'', ''kin'',<br/>They play the ''se''-zither, play the ''qin''-zither,<br/>The mouth organ and chime stones sound together;<br/>They sing the ''Ya'' and ''Nan'' Odes,<br/>And perform flawlessly upon their flutes.|source=''[[Shijing]]'', Ode 208, ''Gu Zhong''{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=19}}<br/>Translated by John S. Major{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=33}}}}
By the mid-13th century BCE, the [[Late Shang]] dynasty had developed writing, which mostly exists as divinatory [[Oracle bone script|inscriptions]] on the ritualistic [[oracle bone]]s but also as [[Chinese bronze inscriptions|bronze inscriptions]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boltz |first=William |title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-47030-8 |editor-last=Loewe |editor-first=Michael |location=Cambridge |page=88 |chapter=Language and Writing |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521470308.004 |editor-last2=Shaughnessy |editor-first2=Edward L.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Qiu |first=Xigui |title=Chinese writing |publisher=Society for the Study of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies, [[University of California]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-55729-071-7 |location=Berkeley |page=6 |author-link=Qiu Xigui |translator-link2=Jerry Norman (sinologist) |translator1-given=Gilbert L. |translator1-surname=Mattos |translator2-given=Jerry |translator2-surname=Norman}} (English translation of ''Wénzìxué Gàiyào'' 文字學概要, Shangwu, 1988.)</ref> As many as 11 oracle script characters may refer to music to some extent, some of which could be iconographical representations of instruments themselves.{{sfn|Tong|1983a|p=64}} The stone bells ''qing'' appears to have been particularly popular with the Shang ruling class,{{refn|{{As of|1983|post=,}} {{harvtxt|Tong|1983a|p=79}} notes that "several dozen Shang ''qing'' have been unearthed in [the 20th century]". From what is known, the common people did not use ''qing'' during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046); many ''qing'' instruments have decorations akin to the bronzeware and jade items of the Shang elite.{{sfn|Tong|1983a|p=111}}|group=n}} and while no surviving flutes have been dated to the Shang,{{sfn|Tong|1983b|p=167}} oracle script evidence suggests they used [[ocarinas]] (''xun''), [[transverse flute]] (''[[Xiao (flute)|xiao]]'' and ''[[Dizi (instrument)|dizi]]''), douple pipes, the mouthorgan (''[[Sheng (instrument)|sheng]]''), and maybe the [[pan flute]] (''[[paixiao]]'').{{sfn|Tong|1983b|p=182}}{{refn|The {{circa|1300–1050}} BCE date for ''paixiao'' is from pictographic evidence that the oracle script the character for ''he'' (attunement) is a pan flute—but is only securely documented in 700 BCE.{{sfn|Guangsheng|2000|p=92}}|group=n}} Due to the [[Bronze Age China|advent of the bronze in 2000 BCE]],{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=13}} the Shang used the material for bells—the ''{{ill|鈴|zh|lt=ling}}'' (鈴), ''{{ill|鐃|zh|lt=nao}}'' (鐃) and ''zhong'' (鐘){{sfn|Moore|2009|loc="Archaeological Evidence of Musical Instruments"}}—that can be differentiated in two ways: those with or without a clapper and those struck on the inside or outside.{{sfn|Tong|1983b|p=145}} Drums, which are not found from before the Shang,{{sfn|Tong|1983a|p=119}} sometimes used bronze, though they were more often wooden (''[[Bangu (drum)|bangu]]'').{{sfn|Tong|1983a|p=152}}{{sfn|Moore|2009|loc="Archaeological Evidence of Musical Instruments"}}{{refn|From all available evidence, [[string instrument]]s do not appear to have existed in the [[Shang dynasty]].{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=33}}|group=n}} The aforementioned wind instruments certainly existed by the [[Zhou dynasty]] (1046–256 BCE), as did the first Chinese string instruments: the ''[[guqin|qin]]'' (or ''guqin'') and ''[[Se (instrument)|se]]'' [[zither]]s.{{sfn|Moore|2009|loc="Archaeological Evidence of Musical Instruments"}}{{refn|The ''[[guqin]]'' (or ''qin'') may have been of Northern, non-Chinese origin,{{sfn|So|Major|2000|pp=30–32}} but it still had a massive impact of future Chinese music.<ref name="MET2">{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=J. Kenneth |date=October 2003 |title=The Qin |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mqin/hd_mqin.htm |access-date=25 June 2021 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]: Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History}}</ref>|group=n}} The Zhou saw the emergence of major court ensembles and the well known [[Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng]] (after 433 BCE) contains a variety of complex and decorated instruments.{{sfn|Moore|2009|loc="Archaeological Evidence of Musical Instruments"}} Of the tomb, the by-far most notable instrument is the monumental [[Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng|set of 65 tuned ''bianzhong'' bells]], which range five octaves requiring at least five players; they are still playable and include rare inscriptions on music.{{sfn|Bagley|2000|pp=36–37}}

[[File:湖北博物館曾侯乙編鐘.jpg|thumb|The monumental [[Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng]], {{circa|5th century}} BCE, from [[Hubei]]]]
Ancient Chinese instruments served both practical and ceremonial means. People used them to appeal to [[supernatural]] forces for survival needs,{{sfn|Lam|2001a}} while pan flutes may have been used to attract birds while hunting,{{sfn|Guangsheng|2000|p=94}} and drums were common in sacrifices and military ceremonies.{{sfn|Tong|1983a|p=119}} Chinese music has always been closely associated with dance, literature and fine arts;{{sfn|Randel|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC&pg=PA260 260]}} many early Chinese thinkers also equated music with proper morality and governance of society.{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=23}}{{refn|The monumental ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' of the [[Han dynasty]] denounces the last king of the Shang, [[King Zhou of Shang|King Zhou]], declaring that "he loved wine and licentious music... thus he had Shi Zhuan create new and depraved sounds... the 'Fluttering Earthwards' music",{{sfn|So|Major|2000|pp=25–26}} while [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]] purportedly used [[pitch pipe]]s to foresee the outcome in his war against King Zhou.{{sfn|Guangsheng|2000|p=90}}|group=n}} Throughout the Shang and Zhou music was a symbol of power for the Imperial court,{{sfn|Guangsheng|2000|p=89}} being used in religious services as well as the [[Ancestor veneration in China|celebration of ancestors]] and heroes.{{sfn|Lam|2001a}}{{sfn|Brindley|2012|p=26}} [[Confucius]] ({{circa|551–479}}) formally designated the music concerned with ritual and ideal morality as the superior {{transliteration|zh|[[yayue]]}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|雅樂}}; "proper music"), in opposition to {{transliteration|zh|[[suyue]]}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|俗樂}}; "vernacular/popular music"),{{sfn|Lam|2001a}}{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=25}} which included virtually all non-ceremonial music, but particularly any that was considered excessive or lascivious.{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=25}} During the [[Warring States Period]] when of Confucius's lifetime, officials often ignored this distinction, preferring more lively {{transliteration|zh|suyue}} music and using the older {{transliteration|zh|yayue}} traditional solely for political means.{{sfn|So|2000|p=25}} Confucius and disciples such as [[Mencius]] considered this preference virtueless and saw ill of the leaders' ignorance of {{transliteration|zh|[[ganying]]}},{{sfn|So|Major|2000|pp=23, 29}} a theory that held music was intrinsically connected to the universe.{{sfn|Brindley|2012|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=29}}{{refn|In a fuller form, the theories of {{transliteration|zh|ganying}} held that the universe was governed by natural, invisible and "resonant" forces, including {{transliteration|zh|[[qi]]}}, [[yin and yang]] and music, which according to the [[Record of Music|''Yueji'' Record of Music]] "represents the attunement of Heaven and Earth."{{sfn|Brindley|2012|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=29}}|group=n}} Thus, many aspects of Ancient Chinese music were aligned with cosmology: the 12 pitch [[shí-èr-lǜ]] system corresponded equally with certain weights and measurements; the [[pentatonic scale]] with the five {{transliteration|zh|[[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|wuxing]]}};{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=29}} and the eight tone classification of [[list of Chinese instruments|Chinese instruments]] of {{transliteration|zh|bayin}} with the eight symbols of ''[[bagua]]''.{{sfn|Moore|2009|loc="Classification and Context of Musical Instruments"}} No actual music or texts on the performance practices of Ancient Chinese musicians survive.{{sfn|Malm|2019|loc="Han dynasty (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE): musical events and foreign influences"}} The [[Five Classics]] of the Zhou dynasty include musical commentary; the ''[[I Ching]]'' and [[Spring and Autumn Annals|''Chunqiu'' Spring and Autumn Annals]] make references, while the [[Liji|''Liji'' Book of Rites]] contains a substantial discussion (see the chapter [[Record of Music|''Yue Ji'' Record of Music]]).{{sfn|Malm|2019|loc="Ancient artifacts and writings"}} While the [[Classic of Music|''Yue Jing'' Classic of Music]] is lost,{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=13}} the [[Shijing|''Shijing'' Classic of Poetry]] contains 160 texts to now lost songs from the [[Western Zhou]] period (1045–771).{{sfn|Falkenhausen|2000|p=102}}

====Qin and Han====
[[File:Shanghai Museum 2006 17-15.jpg|thumb|Two musicians of the [[Eastern Han Dynasty]] (25–220 CE), [[Shanghai Museum]]]]
The [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206 BCE), established by [[Qin Shi Huang]], lasted for only 15 years, but the purported [[Burning of books and burying of scholars|burning of books]] resulted in a substantial loss of previous musical literature.{{sfn|Lam|2001b}} The Qin saw the ''[[guzheng]]'' become a particularly popular instrument; as a more portable and louder zither, it meet the needs of an emerging popular music scene.{{sfn|Lawergren|2000|p=83}}{{refn|Ancient texts attribute the invention of the ''[[guzheng]]'' to the Qin as well, but earlier specimens have been found from the 5th-century BCE.{{sfn|So|Major|2000|p=19}}|group=n}} During the [[Han dynasty]] (202 BCE – 220 CE), there were attempts to reconstruct the music of the Shang and Zhou, as it was now "idealized as perfect".{{sfn|Moore|2009|loc="Classification and Context of Musical Instruments"}}{{sfn|Lam|2001b}} A [[Music Bureau]], the {{transliteration|zh|Yuefu}}, was founded or at its height by at least 120 BCE under [[Emperor Wu of Han]],{{sfn|Birrell|1993|p=xix}}{{refn|There may have been an incipient form of the [[Music Bureau]] ({{transliteration|zh|Yuefu}}) during the Qin dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=VA5tKw11K8YC}} |title=China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary |date=24 February 1998 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-7007-0439-2 |location=Farnham |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VA5tKw11K8YC&pg=PA224 224]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=VA5tKw11K8YC&pg=PA225 225]}}</ref> In general, the chronology of the [[Music Bureau]] is unclear and extremely contradictory in ancient records. See {{harvtxt|Birrell|1993|pp=xviii–xx}} for further information|group=n}} and was responsible for collecting folksongs. The purpose of this was twofold; it allowed the Imperial Court to properly understand the thoughts of the common people,{{sfn|Randel|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC&pg=PA260 260]}} and it was also an opportunity for the Imperial Court to adapt and manipulate the songs to suit propaganda and political purposes.{{sfn|Moore|2009|loc="Classification and Context of Musical Instruments"}}{{sfn|Lam|2001b}}{{refn|See {{harvtxt|Birrell|1993|pp=xxi–xxiv}} for information on the location and amount of surviving folksongs.|group=n}} Employing ceremonial, entertainment-oriented and military musicians,{{sfn|Furniss|2009|p=23}} the Bureau also performed at a variety of venues, wrote new music, and set music to commissioned poetry by noted figures such as [[Sima Xiangru]].{{sfn|Birrell|1993|p=xx}} The Han dynasty had officially adopted [[Confucianism]] as the state philosophy,{{sfn|Lam|2001b}} and the {{transliteration|zh|ganying}} theories became a dominant philosophy.{{sfn|Brindley|2012|p=192}} In practice, however, many officials ignored or downplayed Confucius's high regard for {{transliteration|zh|yayue}} over {{transliteration|zh|suyue}} music, preferring to engage in the more lively and informal later.{{sfn|Furniss|2009|p=24}} By 7 BCE the Bureau employed 829 musicians; that year [[Emperor Ai of Han|Emperor Ai]] either disbanded or downsized the department,{{sfn|Lam|2001b}}{{sfn|Birrell|1993|p=xx}} due to financial limitations,{{sfn|Lam|2001b}} and the Bureau's increasingly prominent {{transliteration|zh|suyue}} music which conflicted with Confucianism.{{sfn|Furniss|2009|p=23}} The Han dynasty saw a preponderance of foreign musical influences from the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]]: the emerging Silk Road led to the exchange of musical instruments,{{sfn|Moore|2009|loc="Migration and Cultural Exchange"}} and allowed travelers such as [[Zhang Qian]] to relay with new musical genres and techniques.{{sfn|Lam|2001b}} Instruments from said cultural transmission include metal trumpets and instruments similar to the modern [[oboe]] and [[oud]] lute, the latter which became the [[pipa]].{{sfn|Moore|2009|loc="Migration and Cultural Exchange"}} Other preexisting instruments greatly increased in popularity, such as the ''qing'',{{sfn|Guangsheng|2000|p=94}} panpipes,{{sfn|Guangsheng|2000|pp=94–95}} and particularly the ''qin''-zither (or ''guqin''), which was from then on the most revered instrument, associated with good character and morality.<ref name="MET2" />