Editing History of medicine (section)

=== Ancient Egyptian medicine ===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian medicine}}
[[File:Magical stela or cippus of Horus MET DP112603.jpg|alt=Magical stela or cippus of Horus inscribed with healing encantations (c. 332 to 280 BCE).|left|thumb|Magical stela or cippus of [[Horus]] inscribed with healing encantations (c. 332 to 280 [[Common Era|BCE]]) ]]
[[Ancient Egypt]], a civilisation spanning the valley of the [[Nile|river Nile]] (throughout parts of present-day [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], and [[South Sudan]]), existed from its [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|unification]] in {{circa}} 3150 [[Common Era|BCE]] to its collapse via [[History of Persian Egypt|Persian conquest]] in 525 [[Common Era|BCE]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Metwaly AM, Ghoneim MM, Eissa IH, Elsehemy IA, Mostafa AE, Hegazy MM, Afifi WM, Dou D | display-authors = 6 | title = Traditional ancient Egyptian medicine: A review | journal = Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences | volume = 28 | issue = 10 | pages = 5823–5832 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34588897 | pmc = 8459052 | doi = 10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.06.044 | bibcode = 2021SJBS...28.5823M }}</ref> and ultimate downfall from the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|conquest of Alexander the Great]] in 332 [[Common Era|BCE]].

Throughout unique{{clarify|date=October 2024}} dynasties, golden eras, and intermediate periods of instability, ancient Egyptians developed a complex, experimental, and communicative medical tradition that has been uncovered through surviving documents, most made of [[papyrus]], such as the [[Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus]], the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]], the [[Ebers Papyrus]], the [[London Medical Papyrus]], to the [[Greek Magical Papyri]].<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Steinbock RT |date=1990 |title=The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt |journal=JAMA |volume=264 |issue=23 |pages=3074 |doi=10.1001/jama.1990.03450230110044 }}</ref>

[[Herodotus]] described the [[Egyptians]] as "the healthiest of all men, next to the Libyans",<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Histories |title-link=Histories (Herodotus) |vauthors=Herodotus |chapter=Chapter 77, Book II |author-link=Herodotus |chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=2.77.3}}</ref> because of the [[dry climate]] and the notable [[public health system]] that they possessed. According to him, "the practice of medicine is so specialized among them that each physician is a healer of one disease and no more." Although Egyptian medicine, to a considerable extent, dealt with the supernatural,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Nunn JF |year=2002 |title=Ancient Egyptian medicine |journal=Transactions of the Medical Society of London |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |volume=113 |pages=57–68 |pmid=10326089}}</ref> it eventually developed a practical use in the fields of anatomy, public health, and clinical diagnostics.

Medical information in the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] may date to a time as early as 3000&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite book |title=\The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus |vauthors=Breasted JH |date=1930 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref> [[Imhotep]] in the [[Third dynasty of Egypt|3rd dynasty]] is sometimes credited with being the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and with being the original author of the ''Edwin Smith Papyrus'', detailing cures, ailments and [[anatomical]] observations. This papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written c. 1600&nbsp;BCE. It is an ancient [[textbook]] on surgery almost completely devoid of [[magical thinking]] and describes in exquisite detail the ''[[Physical examination|examination]], [[diagnosis]], [[Medical treatment|treatment]],'' and ''[[prognosis]]'' of numerous ailments.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Edwin Smith papyrus – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edwin-Smith-papyrus |access-date=2022-10-12 |archive-date=2014-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101084403/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179901/Edwin-Smith-papyrus |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Hieroglyphic-brain.png|alt=The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, written in the 17th century BCE, contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain. New York Academy of Medicine.|thumb|The [[Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus]], written in the 17th century [[Common Era|BCE]], contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain. [[New York Academy of Medicine]].]]

The [[Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus]]<ref>{{cite book |title=The Petrie Papyri: Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob (principally of the Middle Kingdom) |vauthors=Griffith FL |date=1898 |publisher=B. Quaritch}}</ref> treats women's complaints, including problems with [[Conception (biology)|conception]]. Thirty-four cases detailing diagnosis and<ref name="Bynum 2006 p198–199">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/westernmedicaltr0000unse/page/198 |title=The Western Medical Tradition: 1800–2000 |vauthors=Bynum WF, Hardy A, Jacyna S, Lawrence C, Tansey EM |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-47565-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/westernmedicaltr0000unse/page/198 198–99] |chapter=The Rise of Science in Medicine, 1850–1913 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AKPt9cALKeQC&pg=PA407}}</ref> treatment survive, although some of them are mere fragments.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/kahunpapyrus.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419085059/http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/kahunpapyrus.htm |archive-date=19 April 2012 |access-date=2012-04-21 |publisher=Reshafim.org.il}}</ref> Dating to 1800&nbsp;BCE, it is the oldest surviving medical text of any kind.

Medical institutions, referred to as Houses of Life, are known to have been established in ancient Egypt as early as 2200 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Museum: House of Life |url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/museum/museum2.html |access-date=2017-02-17 |website=www.ucl.ac.uk |archive-date=2016-07-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725013347/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/museum/museum2.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Ebers Papyrus]] is the oldest written text mentioning [[enema]]s. Many [[medications]] were administered by enemas and one of the many types of medical specialists was an Iri, the Shepherd of the Anus.<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Medicine |vauthors=Magner L |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8247-8673-1 |location=[[Boca Raton, Florida]] |page=31}}</ref>

The earliest known physician is also credited to [[History of ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]]: [[Hesy-Ra]], "Chief of Dentists and Physicians" for King [[Djoser]] in the 27th century&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite book |title=Medicine Across Cultures: History and Practice of Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |date=2003 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-306-48094-2 |editor-link1=Helaine Selin |veditors=Selin H, Shapiro H |location=Dordrecht |page=35}}</ref> Also, the earliest known woman physician, [[Peseshet]], practiced in [[Ancient Egypt]] at the time of the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]]. Her title was "Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians."<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ghalioungui P |date=1975 |title=Les plus anciennes femmes-médecins de l'histoire. |url=https://www.ifao.egnet.net/bifao/075/09/ |journal=Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale |publisher=Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale du Caire |volume=75 |pages=159–164 |pmid=11631709 |access-date=2021-02-02 |archive-date=2021-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518154704/https://www.ifao.egnet.net/bifao/075/09/ |url-status=live }}</ref>