Editing History of Ukraine (section)

== Antiquity ==
=== Scythian settlement, Greek colonization, and Roman domination ===
{{Main|Bosporan Kingdom|Greek Crimea|Roman Crimea}}

[[File:Coin of Sauromates II of the Bosporan Kingdom, including depiction of Septimius Severus and Caracalla.jpg|thumb|A gold [[stater]] of [[Bosporan Kingdom|Bosporan]] [[List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus|king]] [[Tiberius Julius Sauromates II]], his bust depicted on the [[obverse]] with the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] legend "[[Basileus|BACΙΛΕΩC CΑΥΡΟΜΑΤΟΥ]]", and on the reverse the heads of [[Roman emperor]]s [[Septimius Severus]] and [[Caracalla]], dated 198 or 199 AD]]
During the [[Iron Age]], the region witnessed the rise and interaction of diverse peoples and cultures. Following earlier Bronze Age societies, the [[Dacians]], alongside [[Nomad|nomadic groups]] such as the [[Cimmerians]] (associated with the [[Novocherkassk culture|Novocherkassk archaeological culture]]), [[Scythians]], and [[Sarmatians]], dominated the landscape. Among these, the Scythians established a [[Scythia|powerful kingdom]] that flourished between 750 and 250 BC, characterized by their mastery of mounted warfare and trade networks spanning vast territories.<ref name="EB-Scyth">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066426|title=Scythian|access-date=12 September 2007|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref>

One of the notable events in Scythian history was the [[Scythian campaign of Darius I|campaign]] of [[Darius the Great]] in 513 BC. The [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian]] king led an expedition aimed at subjugating the Scythians. While the Scythians employed their signature scorched-earth and guerrilla tactics to evade outright defeat, the campaign resulted in the Persian domination of several [[Thracians|Thracian peoples]] and regions along the [[Black Sea]]’s northern coast. These territories, encompassing parts of modern-day [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Ukraine]], and southern [[Russia]], were incorporated into the vast Achaemenid sphere of influence, though direct control remained tenuous.<ref>Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7 pp. 135–138, 343–345</ref><ref>The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, ISBN 0-19-860641-9,"page 1515,"The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516"</ref>

[[File:Склеп Деметры.JPG|thumb|left|The goddess [[Demeter]] in a [[Ancient Greek art|Greek]] [[fresco]] from [[Panticapaeum]] in the [[Bosporan Kingdom]], 1st century AD, Crimea]]
Meanwhile, [[Greeks|Greek]] colonization left a lasting imprint on the region. Beginning in the 7th or 6th century BC during the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]], Greek settlers [[Greek colonisation|established colonies along the northern Black Sea coast]], including [[Crimea]] and parts of modern Ukraine. These colonies, such as [[Chersonesus]] and [[Pontic Olbia|Olbia]], served as hubs of trade, cultural exchange, and Hellenic influence. The [[Bosporan Kingdom]], a Greco-Scythian polity formed in this context, became a regional power, blending Greek traditions with local elements. It thrived until the 4th century AD, when invasions by the [[Goths]] and later the [[Huns]] disrupted its stability.<ref name="Hammond1959">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond|title=A history of Greece to 322 B.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0FoAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=8 August 2013|year=1959|publisher=Clarendon Press|page=109|isbn=978-0-19-814260-7 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchiner |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuQLAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ancient & Classical World, 600 B.C.-A.D. 650 |date=1978 |publisher=Hawkins Publications |isbn=978-0-904173-16-1 |page=69 |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Roman Empire]], expanding its reach into the region, briefly annexed the Bosporan Kingdom from 62 to 68 AD under Emperor [[Nero]]. During this period, the reigning [[List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus|Bosporan king]], [[Tiberius Julius Cotys I]], was deposed, and the kingdom was directly administered by [[Rome]]. Following Nero’s rule, the Bosporan Kingdom was restored as a [[Roman Crimea|Roman]] [[Amicitia|client state]], retaining local governance but under [[Roman military]] oversight. This arrangement ensured the region remained within Rome’s economic and strategic sphere during the middle of the 1st century AD.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bunson|first=Matthew|title=A dictionary of the Roman Empire|year=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0195102339|page=116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chersonesos.org/?p=history_ant&l=eng#7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040812152424/http://www.chersonesos.org/?p%3Dhistory_ant%26l%3Deng|archive-date=12 August 2004|title=Ancient period - History - About Chersonesos, Sevastopol|website=www.chersonesos.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Migliorati| first = Guido| title = Cassio Dione e l'impero romano da Nerva ad Anotonino Pio: alla luce dei nuovi documenti| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jbS5KHJ4uqcC&pg=PA6| year = 2003| publisher = Vita e Pensiero| isbn = 88-343-1065-9| page = 6 | language = it }}</ref>

=== Arrival of the Goths and Huns ===
{{main|Goths|Oium|Huns|Kyiv culture|Bosporan Kingdom}}
{{further information|Migration Period}}

In the 3rd century AD, the [[Goths]], a [[Germanic people]] originally from [[Scandinavia]], began migrating toward [[Eastern Europe]]. By approximately 250 to 375 AD, they had settled in the area of modern [[Ukraine]], which they referred to as [[Oium]]. This region is linked to the archaeological [[Chernyakhov culture]], known for its unique mix of local and Gothic influences.<ref name="history of ukraine27">{{cite book|first=Paul Robert|last=Magocsi|year=1996|title=A History of Ukraine|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|location=[[Toronto]]|isbn=0-8020-0830-5|page=27}}</ref>

The Goths in this region soon divided into two main groups: the [[Visigoths]] (Western Goths) and the [[Ostrogoths]] (Eastern Goths). The Ostrogoths established a stronghold in Ukraine but faced significant changes in the 370s with the arrival of the [[Huns]], a nomadic group from [[Central Asia]]. The Huns were powerful warriors and ultimately brought the Ostrogoths under their control, leading to major shifts in Gothic society and governance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frolova |first=N. |date=1999 |title=The Question of Continuity in the Late Classical Bosporus On the Basis of Numismatic Data |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/acss/5/3/article-p179_12.xml |journal=Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia |language=en |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=179–205 |doi=10.1163/157005799X00188 |issn=0929-077X}}</ref>

[[File:Huns450.png|thumb|Territory under Hunnic control, c. 450 AD]]
To the north of the Ostrogothic territory was the [[Kyiv culture]], a [[Slavs|Slavic]] archaeological culture that thrived from the 2nd to the 5th centuries AD. As the Huns expanded their influence across Eastern Europe, this culture also came under threat. Many Slavic and other local groups were affected by the Hunnic invasions, resulting in changes in settlement patterns and local governance.<ref name="Kazanski">Michel Kazanski (2020). "[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02902087 Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations]", in: Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online, Editor-in-Chief Marc L. Greenberg, BRILL</ref>

In 454 AD, a decisive battle known as the [[Battle of Nedao]] marked a turning point. The Ostrogoths, along with other Germanic tribes, rebelled against the Huns and contributed to their defeat. Following this victory, the Ostrogoths were permitted by the Romans to settle in [[Pannonia]] (modern-day [[Hungary]]), marking their departure from the Ukrainian lands.<ref name=unesco>''History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D.'', [[UNESCO]], 1996, {{ISBN|92-3-102812-X}}.</ref>

Meanwhile, the [[Black Sea]]’s northeastern shores were dotted with ancient [[Greek colonisation|Greek colonies]], such as [[Tyras]], [[Pontic Olbia]], and [[Hermonassa]]. Established as early as the 6th century BC, these colonies developed into important cultural and trading centers under [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and later [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule. These cities continued to thrive until the 6th century AD, when Byzantine influence began to wane.<ref name=Boardman251>{{cite book|last=Boardman|first=John|title=The Greeks Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade|url=https://archive.org/details/greeksoverseas00boar|url-access=registration|year=1980|publisher=Thames and Hudson Ltd|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/greeksoverseas00boar/page/251 251]|isbn=9780500250693 }}</ref>

In the early 6th century AD, the [[Bosporan Kingdom]] on the [[Crimean Peninsula]] came under the rule of a [[List of kings of the Huns|Hunnic king]] named [[Gordas]]. Gordas maintained friendly relations with the Byzantine emperor [[Justinian I]], but this ended when Gordas was killed in a local revolt around 527 AD. Justinian seized the opportunity to intervene, occupying the Bosporan Kingdom and further extending Byzantine influence over the region. However, even into the 12th century, Byzantine emperors continued to claim dominion over the Crimean region, known as the [[Cimmerian Bosporus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawler |first=Jennifer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEWeCQAAQBAJ |title=Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire |date=2015 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-0929-4 |page=137 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Gautier, Paul (1965). "Le dossier d'un haut fonctionnaire byzantin d'Alexis Ier Comnène, Manuel Stra-boromanos". ''Revue des études byzantines'', Paris, vol.23, pp. 178, 190</ref>