Editing History of Tunisia (section)

==Carthage==
{{Main|History of Carthage}}

===Foundation===
The city of [[Carthage]] (site of its ruins near present-day Tunis) was founded by [[Phoenicia]]ns coming from the [[Levant|eastern Mediterranean coast]].  Its name, pronounced ''Qart Hadesht'' in the [[Phoenician language|Punic language]] that meant "new city" (It's cognate with [[Arabic]], "Qarya Ħadītha", lit: "Modern Village/City).<ref>{{cite book|author= Gilbert Charles-Picard|year=1968|title=The Life and Death of Carthage|publisher=Taplinger|pages=30|author-link=Gilbert Charles-Picard}}. Here ''qart'' meant "city" (cognate with Arabic "Qarya"), ''ħadesht'' "new" (cognate with Arabic "Ħadītha). Note that Qart-Ħadesht is pronounced ''Carchedon'' (Καρχήδόν) in ancient Greek.</ref> The Punic idiom is a [[Canaanite language]], in the group of [[Northwest Semitic languages]].<ref>''Cf.'' Lancel, Serge (1995) ''Carthage: A History''. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 351–360. {{ISBN|9781557864680}}.</ref>

Timaeus of Taormina, a third century BC Greek historian from Sicily, gives the date of the founding of Carthage as thirty-eight years before the first [[Olympiad]] (776 BC), which in today's calendar would be the year 814 BC. Timaeus in Sicily was proximous to Cathaginians and their version of the city's foundation; his date is generally accepted as approximate.<ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' (1960) p. 22, noting that the Greek city of [[Cumae]] was founded in Italy shortly thereafter.</ref> Ancient authors, such as [[Sallust]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], give founding dates several hundred years earlier for other Phoenician cities in the western Mediterranean, such as [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]] and [[Cádiz|Gades]], but recent archeology has been unable to verify these earlier dates.<ref>Lancel, ''Carthage. A history'' (1995) pp. 2–3; 4, 16.</ref>

It was [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], a major maritime city-state of Phoenicia, which first settled Carthage, probably in order to enjoy a permanent station there for its ongoing trade. Legends alive in the African city for centuries assigned its foundation to a queen of Tyre, Elissa, also called [[Dido (Queen of Carthage)|Dido]].<ref>Queen Elissa (Dido) would be related to [[Jezebel]] of the Bible. David Soren, Aicha Ben Abed Ben Khader, Hedi Slim, ''Carthage. Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia'' (New York: Simon & Schuster 1990) pp. 21, 24. Jezebel was the Phoenician wife of Ahab, King of Israel (c.875–854).</ref> The Roman historian [[Pompeius Trogus]], a near contemporary of Virgil, describes a sinister web of court intrigue which caused Queen Elissa (Dido) to flee the city of Tyre westward with a fleet of ships.<ref>Soren, Ben Khader, Slim, ''Carthage'' (1990) pp. 23–24. Trogus appears to follow the events as described by the historian Timaeus. The writings of Trogus exist only in a later epitome by [[Justin (historian)|Justin]].</ref> The Roman poet [[Virgil]] (70–19 BC) portrays Dido as the tragic, admirable heroine of his epic the ''[[Aeneid]]'', which contains many inventions loosely based on legendary history, and includes the story about how the Phoenician queen acquired the [[Byrsa]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Lancel|year=1995|title=Carthage: a history|pages=23–25}}</ref>

===Sovereignty===

By the middle of the sixth century BC, Carthage had grown into a fully independent [[thalassocracy]]. Under Mago (r., c.550–530) and later his [[List of Monarchs of Carthage|Magonid]] family, Carthage became preeminent among the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean, which included nearby [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]].

[[Image:Hasdrubal coin.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hasdrubal of Carthage, younger brother of Hannibal (247–c.182)]]

Trading partnerships were established among the Numidian Berbers to the west along the [[Mauretania|African coast]] as well as to the east in [[Libya]]; other stations were located in southern [[Sardinia]] and western [[Sicily]], [[Ibiza]] in the [[Balearics]], [[Lixus (ancient city)|Lixus]] south of the straits, and [[Cadiz|Gades]] north of the straits, with additional trading stations in the south and east of [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]]. Also, Carthage enjoyed an able ally in the [[Etruscans]], who then ruled a powerful state to the north of the infant city of Rome.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lancel|year=1995|title=Carthage: a history|pages=20–25, 79–86}}</ref><ref>[[Gilbert Charles-Picard|Gilbert]] and [[Colette Picard]], ''Vie et mort de Carthage'' (1968) translated as ''Life and Death of Carthage'' (New York: Taplinger 1969) pp. 59–72; Glenn Markoe, ''The Phoenicians'' (Univ. of California 2000) pp. 54–56.</ref>

A merchant sailor of Carthage, [[Himilco]], explored in the Atlantic to the north of the straits, along the coast of the [[Lusitanians]] and perhaps as far as Oestrymnis (modern [[Brittany]]), circa 500 BC. Carthage would soon supplant the Iberian city of [[Tartessus]] in carrying the [[tin]] trade from Oestrymnis. Another, [[Hanno the Navigator]] explored the Atlantic to the south, along the African coast well past the River [[Gambia]]. The traders of Carthage were known to be secretive about business and particularly about trade routes; it was their practice to keep the straits to the Atlantic closed to the Greeks.<ref>Cary and Warmington, ''The Ancient Explorers'' (London: Methuen 1929; revised, Baltimore: Pelican 1963) pp. 45–47 (Himilco), pp. 63–68 (Hanno), p. 47 (straits closed). The Phoenicians themselves had followed the [[Minoans]] in the ancient sea trade, ''Ibid.'', pp. 23–29.</ref>

In the 530s there had been a three sided naval struggle between the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Etrusco-Punic allies; the Greeks lost [[Corsica]] to the Etruscans and Sardinia to Carthage. Then the Etruscans attacked Greek colonies in the [[Campania]] south of Rome, but unsuccessfully.  As an eventual result, [[Rome]] threw off their Etruscan kings of the [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquin]] dynasty.  The [[Roman Republic]] and Carthage in 509 entered into a treaty which set out to define their commercial zones.<ref>Charles-Picard, ''The Life and Death of Carthage'' pp. 72–78.</ref>

===Greek rivalry===
The energetic presence of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] traders and their emporia in the Mediterranean region led to disputes over commercial spheres of influence, especially in Sicily.  This Greek threat, plus the foreign conquest of Phoenicia in the Levant, had caused many Phoenician colonies to come under the leadership of Carthage.  In 480 BC (concurrent with [[Persia|Persia's]] invasion of Greece), Mago's grandson [[Hamilcar]] landed a large army in Sicily in order to confront [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] (a colony of [[Corinth]]) on the island's eastern coast, but the Greeks prevailed at the [[Battle of Himera (480 BC)|Battle of Himera]].  A long struggle ensued with intermittent warfare between Syracuse led by e.g., the tyrant [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius I]] (r.405–367), and Carthage led by e.g., [[Hanno the Great|Hanno I the Great]]. Later, near Syracuse Punic armies defeated the Greek leader [[Agathocles]] (r.317–289) in battle, who then attempted a bold strategic departure by leaving Sicily and landing his forces at [[Cape Bon]] near Carthage, frightening the city. Yet Carthage again defeated Agathocles (310–307). Greece, preoccupied with its conquest of the Persian Empire in the east, eventually became supplanted in the western Mediterranean by Rome, the new rival of Carthage.<ref>Charles-Picard, ''Life and Death of Carthage'' pp. 78–80, 166–171; Lancel, ''Carthage: a history'' pp. 90, 115; Charles-Picard, ''Life and death of Carthage'' pp. 131–134.</ref>

All this while Carthage enlarged its commercial sphere, venturing south to develop the Saharan trade, augmenting its markets along the African coast, in southern Iberia, and among the Mediterranean islands, and exploring in the far Atlantic.  Carthage also established its authority directly among the Numidian Berber peoples in the lands immediately surrounding the city, which grew ever more prosperous.<ref>Jamil M. Abun-Naysr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (Cambridge Univ. 1971) pp. 17–20; Serge Lancel, ''Carthage: A history'' (Blackwell 1995) pp. 88–102; E. W. Bovill, ''The Golden Trade of the Moors'' (Oxford 1958, 1968) pp. 18–28.</ref>

[[Image:Tunisise Carthage Tophet Salambo 03.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Carthage tophet|Tophet]] funerary stelae, showing (below moon and sun) a symbol of Tanit, queen goddess of Carthage]]

===Religion of Carthage===
The Phoenicians of Tyre brought their lifestyle and inherited customs with them to Northwest Africa. Their religious practices and beliefs were generally similar to those of their neighbors in [[Canaanite religion|Canaan]], which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the [[Ancient Semitic religions|ancient Semitic world]].<ref>Sabatino Moscati, ''Ancient Semitic Civilizations'' (London 1957), e.g., pp. 40 & 113; [[William Robertson Smith|W. Robertson Smith]], ''Lectures on the Religion of the Semites'' (London, 3rd ed. 1927). Cf. Julian Baldick, who posits an even greater and more ancient sweep of a common religious culture in his ''Black God. [[Afro-Asiatic|Afroasiatic]] roots of Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religions'' (1998).</ref> Several aspects of Canaanite religion have been widely criticized, particularly temple prostitution and child sacrifice.<ref>S.G.F.Brandon (ed.), ''Dictionary of Comparative Religion'' (Scribners 1970), "Canaanite Religion" p. 170, and "Molech" p. 448. In the foundation story of Abraham and Isaac (Ishmael in Islam), the practice of child sacrifice is shown rejected by Hebrew religion (''Genesis'' 22:1–19; cf., ''Leviticus'' 18:21, 20:2–5); and temple prostitution is rejected as well per the reforms of Josiah (''2 Kings'' 23:7; cf., ''Deuteronomy'' 23:17).</ref> Canaanite religious sense and mythology do not appear as elaborated or developed as those of Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called ''El'', which means "god" in common Semitic. The important storm god was called ''Baal'', which means "master". Other gods were called after royalty, e.g., ''Melqart'' means "king of the city".<ref>Moscati, ''Ancient Semitic Civilizations'' pp. 113–114.</ref>

The gods of the Semitic pantheon that were worshipped would depend on the identity of the particular city-state or tribe.<ref>''Eshmun'' the god of healing was the chief god of Sidon, ''Dagon'' (whose son was Baal) of Ashdod, the rejuvenating ''Melqart'' of Tyre, ''Terah'' the moon god of the Zebulon, while in Mesopotamia the moon god was ''Sin'' (called ''Nanna'' at Ur), the fertility goddess of Uruk being ''Ishtar'',  the great. god of Babylon being ''Marduk''. Brandon (ed.), ''Dictionary of Comparative Religion'' re "Canaanite Religion" p. 173, "Phoenician Religion" p. 501; Richard Carlyon, ''A Guide to the Gods'' (New York 1981) pp. 311, 315, 320, 324, 326, 329, 332, 333.</ref> After being transplanted to Africa far from its regional origins, and after co-existing with the surrounding [[Berber pantheon|Berber]] tribes, the original Phoenician pantheon and ways of worship evolved distinctly over time at the city-state of Carthage.<ref>See also: [[Punic religion]]</ref>

===Constitution of Carthage===
{{Main|Constitution of Carthage}}
The government of Carthage was undoubtedly patterned after the Phoenician, especially the mother city of Tyre, but Phoenician cities had kings and Carthage apparently did not.<ref>This discussion first follows Warmington in essence, then turns to Charles-Picard's substantially different results.</ref> An important office was called in [[Canaanite languages|Punic]] the [[Suffet|''Suffets'']] (a Semitic word agnate with the [[Biblical Hebrew language|Old Hebrew]] ''Shophet'' usually translated as Judges as in the [[Book of Judges]]). Yet the Suffet at Carthage was more the executive leader, but as well served in a judicial role. Birth and wealth were the initial qualifications.<ref>A circa 2nd century B.C. bilingual inscription from [[Thugga]] (modern Dougga, Tunisia), describes Berber political office holders and indicates some influence by Carthage on Berber state institutions. Brett and Fentress, ''The Berbers'' (1996) p. 39.</ref> It appears that the Suffet was elected by the citizens, and held office for a one-year term; probably there were two of them at a time; hence quite comparable to the [[Consul|Roman Consulship]]. A crucial difference was that the Suffet had no military power. Carthaginian generals marshalled [[mercenary]] armies and were separately elected. From about 550 to 450 the Magonid family monopolized the top military position; later the Barcid family acted similarly. Eventually it came to be that, after a war, the commanding general had to testify justifying his actions before a court of 104 judges.<ref>{{cite book|last=Warmington|first=B. H.|year=1960|title=Carthage|publisher=Robert Hale, Pelican|pages=144–147}}</ref>

[[Aristotle]] (384–322, Greek) discusses Carthage in his ''Politica'' describing the city as a "mixed constitution", a political arrangement with cohabiting elements of [[monarchy]], [[aristocracy]], and [[democracy]].<ref>Aristotle, ''Politica'' in ''The Basic Works of Aristotle'' edited by R. McKeon, translated by B. Jowett (Random House 1941) pp. 1113–1316, "Carthage" in Book II, Chapter 11, pp. pages 1171–1174 (1272b–1274b).</ref>  Later [[Polybus of Megalopolis]] (c.204–122, Greek) in his ''Histories'' would describe the [[Roman Republic]] as a mixed constitution in which the [[Roman consul|Consuls]] were the monarchy, the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] the aristocracy, and the [[Roman assemblies|Assemblies]] the democracy.<ref>Polybus, ''Histories'' translated as ''Rise of the Roman Empire'' (Penguin 19xy) Chapter VI.</ref>

Evidently Carthage also had an institution of elders who advised the Suffets, similar to the Roman Senate.  We do not have a name for this body. At times members would travel with an army general on campaign.  Members also formed permanent committees.  The institution had several hundred members from the wealthiest class who held office for life.  Vacancies were probably filled by co-option.  From among its members were selected the [[Hundred and Four|104 Judges]] mentioned above. Later the 104 would come to judge not only army generals but other office holders as well. Aristotle regarded the 104 as most important; he compared it to the [[ephor]]ate of [[Sparta]] with regard to control over security. In Hannibal's time, such a Judge held office for life. At some stage there also came to be independent self-perpetuating boards of five who filled vacancies and supervised (non-military) government administration.<ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' pp. 147–148.</ref>

Popular assemblies also existed at Carthage. When deadlocked the Suffets and the quasi-senatorial institution might request the assembly to vote, or in very crucial matters in order to achieve political coherence.  The assembly members had no ''legal'' wealth or birth qualification.  How its members were selected is unknown, e.g., whether by festival group or urban ward or another method.<ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' p. 148.</ref>

The Greeks were favorably impressed by the constitution of Carthage; [[Aristotle]] had a study of it made which unfortunately is lost. In the brief approving review of it found in his ''Politica'' Aristotle saw one fault: that focus on pursuit of wealth led to [[oligarchy]].<ref>Aristotle, ''Politica'' in II, 11, pages 1171–1174 (1272b/23–1273b/26).</ref> So it was in Carthage. The people were politically passive; popular rights came late. Being a commercial republic fielding a [[mercenary]] army, the people were not conscripted for military service, an experience which can foster the feel for popular political action. On the other hand, Carthage was very stable; there were few openings for tyrants. "The superiority of their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal," noted Aristotle.<ref>Aristotle, ''Politica'' in II, 11, p. page 1171 (1272b/29–32).</ref> Only after defeat by Rome devastated Carthage's imperial ambitions did the people express interest in reform.<ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' pp. 143–144, 148–150</ref>

In 196, following the Second Punic War, [[Hannibal]], still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader, was elected [[Suffet]]. When his reforms were blocked by a financial official about to become a Judge for life, Hannibal rallied the populace against the 104 Judges. He proposed a one-year term for the 104, as part of a major civic overhaul. His political opponents cravenly went to Rome and charged Hannibal with conspiracy, with plotting war against Rome in league with [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus]] the Hellenic ruler of [[Seleucid Empire|Syria]]. Although [[Scipio Africanus]] resisted such maneuver, eventually Roman intervention forced Hannibal to leave Carthage.  Thus corrupt officials of Carthage efficiently blocked Hannibal's efforts at reform.<ref>Warmington, ''Carthage'' pp. 240–241</ref>

The above description of the constitution basically follows Warmington. Largely it is taken from descriptions by Greek foreigners who likely would see in Carthage reflections of their own institutions. How strong was the Hellenizing influence within Carthage? The basic difficulty is the lack of adequate writings due to the secretive nature of the Punic state as well as to the utter destruction of the capital city and its records. Another view of the constitution of Carthage is given by Charles-Picard as follows.

Mago (6th century) was ''King'' of Carthage, Punic ''MLK'' or ''malik'' (Greek ''basileus''), not merely a ''SFT'' or ''Suffet'', which then was only a minor official.  Mago as ''MLK'' was head of state and war leader;  being ''MLK'' was also a religious office.  His family was considered to possess a sacred quality.  Mago's office was somewhat similar to that of [[Pharaoh]], but although kept in a family it was not [[hereditary]], it was limited by legal consent;  however, the council of elders and the popular assembly are late institutions. Carthage was founded by the ''King'' of Tyre who had a royal monopoly on this trading venture. Accordingly, royal authority was the traditional source of power the ''MLK'' of Carthage possessed. Later, as other Phoenician ship companies entered the trading region, and so associated with the city-state, the ''MLK'' of Carthage had to keep order among a rich variety of powerful merchants in their negotiations over risky commerce across the seas.  The office of ''MLK'' began to be transformed, yet it was not until the aristocrats of Carthage became landowners that a council of elders was institutionalized.<ref>Charles-Picard, ''Life and Death of Carthage'' pp. 80–86</ref>

===Punic Wars with Rome===
The emergence of the Roman Republic and its developing foreign interests led to sustained rivalry with Carthage for dominion of the western Mediterranean.  As early as 509 BC Carthage and Rome had entered into treaty status, but eventually their opposing positions led to disagreement, alienation, and conflict.

[[Image:Portrait Hannibal Barca.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Modern engraving of [[Hannibal]], based on marble bust found at [[Capua]], said to have been made during his lifetime. Museo Nazionale, Naples.]]

The [[First Punic War]] (264–241 BC) started in Sicily.  It developed into a naval war in which the Romans learned how to fight at sea and prevailed.  Carthage lost Sardinia and its western portion of Sicily. Following their defeat, the [[Mercenary War|Mercenary revolt]] threatened the social order of Carthage, which they survived under their opposing leaders [[Hanno II the Great]], and [[Hamilcar Barca]], father of Hannibal.<ref>Charles-Picard, ''Life and Death of Carthage'' pp. 182–202.</ref>

The [[Second Punic War]] (218–201 BC) started over a dispute concerning [[Saguntum]] (near modern Valencia) in [[Hispania]], from whence [[Hannibal]] set out, leading his armies over the [[Alps]] into Italy.  At first Hannibal ("grace of Baal") won great military victories against Rome, at [[Battle of Lake Trasimeno|Trasimeno]] (217 BC) and at [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]] (216 BC), which came close to destroying Rome's ability to wage war.  Yet the majority of Rome's Italian allies remained loyal; Rome drew on all her resources and managed to rebuild her military strength. For many years Hannibal remained on campaign in southern Italy. An attempt in 207 BC by his brother Hasdrubal to reinforce him failed. Meanwhile, Roman armies were contesting Carthage for the control of Hispania, in 211 BC the domain of armies under Hannibal's three brothers ([[Hasdrubal (Barcid)|Hasdrubal]] and [[Mago (Barcid)|Mago]]), and [[Hasdrubal Gisco]]; by 206 BC the Roman general Cornelius Scipio (later Africanus) had defeated Punic power there. In 204 BC Rome landed armies at [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]] near Carthage, which forced Hannibal's return. One Numidian king, [[Syphax]], supported Carthage. Another, [[Masinissa]], Rome. At the [[Battle of Zama]] in 202 BC the same Roman general [[Scipio Africanus]] defeated Hannibal, ending the long war.  Carthage lost its trading cities in Hispania and elsewhere in the Western Mediterranean, and much of its influence over the [[Numidians|Numidian Kingdoms]] in Northwest Africa. Carthage became reduced to its immediate surroundings. Also, it was required to pay a large indemnity to Rome.<ref>Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' pp. 25–28;  Lancel, ''Carthage: a history'' pp. 376–401; Charles-Picard, ''Life and Death of Carthage'' pp. 230–267; Theodor Mommsen, ''Romische Geschichte'' (3 volumes, Leipzig 1854–1856) translated by Wm. Dickson as ''History of Rome'' (4 volumes 1862, 4th ed. 1894); H. H. Scullard, ''History of the Roman World, 753–146 BC'' (rev.ed. 1951). Cf. the ancient Roman historian Livy, ''[[Ab urbe condita]]'' (c.20 B.C.) in Books XXI–XXX, translated as ''The War with Hannibal'' (Penguin 1965).</ref> Carthage revived, causing great alarm in Rome.

The [[Third Punic War]] (149–146 BC) began following the refusal by Carthage to alter the terms of its agreement with Rome. Roman armies again came to Africa and lay siege to the ancient and magnificent city of Carthage, which rejected negotiations.  Eventually, the end came; Carthage was destroyed and its citizens enslaved.<ref>Lancel, ''Carthage: a history'' pp. 401–406, 409–427.</ref>

'''Afterward''' The region (modern Tunisia) was annexed by the [[Roman Republic]] as the province of Africa.  Carthage itself was eventually rebuilt by the Romans.  Long after the fall of Rome, the city of Carthage would be again destroyed.