Editing History of Peru (section)

==Spanish era==
===Spanish conquest (1532–1572)===
{{main|Spanish conquest of Peru}}
The word ''Peru'' may be derived from ''Birú'', the name of a local ruler who lived near the [[Bay of San Miguel]], [[Panama]], in the early 16th century.<ref>Porras Barrenechea (1968) p. 83</ref> When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.<ref>Porras Barrenechea (1968) p. 84</ref> Thus, when [[Francisco Pizarro]] explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.<ref>Porras Barrenechea (1968) p. 86.</ref> An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He says the name ''Birú'' was that of a common Indian happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias de Ávila, and goes on to relate many more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.<ref>Vega, Garcilasco, ''Commentarios Reales de los Incas'', Editoriial Mantaro, Lima, ed. 1998. pp.14–15. First published in Lisbon in 1609.</ref> The [[Spanish Empire|Spanish Crown]] gave the name legal status with the 1529 ''[[Francisco Pizarro#Capitulación de Toledo|Capitulación de Toledo]]'', which designated the newly encountered [[Inca Empire]] as the province of Peru.<ref>Porras Barrenechea (1968) p. 87</ref> Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], which became Republic of Peru after [[Peruvian War of Independence|independence]].

When the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] landed in 1531, [[Peru]]'s territory was the nucleus of the highly developed [[Tahuantinsuyu|Inca civilization]]. Centered at [[Cusco|Cuzco]], the Inca Empire extended over a vast region, stretching from southwest [[Ecuador]] to northern [[Chile]].

[[Francisco Pizarro]] and his brothers were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/papers/white.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071207140514/http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/papers/white.html|url-status=dead|title=Atahualpa, Pizarro and the Fall of the Inca Empire|archive-date=7 December 2007|access-date=24 December 2022}}</ref> In 1532, they arrived in the country, which they called Peru. (The forms ''Biru'', ''Pirú'', and ''Berú'' are also seen in early records.) According to [[Raúl Porras Barrenechea]], Peru is not a [[Quechua languages|Quechua]]n nor [[Caribbean Spanish|Caribbean]] word, but Indo-Hispanic or hybrid.

In the years between 1524 and 1526, [[smallpox]], introduced from the conquistadors in Panama and preceding the Spanish conquerors in Peru through transmission among natives, had swept through the Inca Empire.<ref name="smallpox">{{Cite book
| last = Austin Alchon
| first = Suzanne
| title = A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YiHHnV08ebkC&pg=PA152
| publisher = University of New Mexico Press
| year = 2003
| page = 152
| isbn = 0-8263-2871-7}}
</ref> Smallpox caused the death of the Inca ruler [[Huayna Capac]] as well as most of his family including his heir,<ref>{{Citation |title=Muerte de Huayna Cápac y lucha por la mascapaicha |date=2015-06-05 |url=http://books.openedition.org/ifea/5993 |work=Choquequirao : Símbolo de la resistencia andina (historia, antropología y lingüística) |pages=63–98 |editor-last=Burga |editor-first=Manuel |series=Travaux de l'IFEA |place=Lima |publisher=Institut français d’études andines |language=es |isbn=978-2-8218-4426-1 |access-date=2022-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=GrupoRPP |date=2016-08-23 |title=¿Quién fue el inca Huayna Cápac y por qué fue importante? |url=https://rpp.pe/peru/historia/quien-fue-el-inca-huayna-capac-y-por-que-fue-importante-noticia-989367 |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=RPP |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Huayna Capac {{!}} Real Academia de la Historia |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/94965/huayna-capac |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=dbe.rah.es}}</ref> caused the fall of the Inca political structure and contributed to the [[Inca Civil War|civil war]] between the brothers [[Atahualpa]] and [[Huáscar]].<ref>Hemming, John. ''The Conquest of the Inca''. New York: Harcourt, Inc., 1970, 28–29.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Marín |first=Isidro |title=La guerra entre hermanos (Huáscar frente a Atahualpa) {{!}} Cultura Científica - UTPL |date=21 June 2018 |url=https://culturacientifica.utpl.edu.ec/?p=2968 |access-date=2022-09-15 |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2015-02-18 |title=Guerra Civil entre Huáscar y Atahualpa |url=https://historiaperuana.pe/periodo-autoctono/guerra-civil-huascar-atahualpa |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=Historia del Perú |language=es}}</ref> Taking advantage of this, [[Pizarro]] carried out a ''[[coup d'état]]''. On 16 November 1532, while the Atahualpa's victorious army was in an unarmed celebration in [[Cajamarca (city)|Cajamarca]], the Spanish lured Atahualpa into a trap during the [[Battle of Cajamarca]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Lavallé |first=Bernard |title=6 La trampa de Cajamarca (15-17 de noviembre de 1532) |date=2013-02-15 |url=http://books.openedition.org/ifea/935 |work=Francisco Pizarro : Biografía de una conquista |pages=109–122 |series=Travaux de l'IFEA |place=Lima |publisher=Institut français d’études andines |isbn=978-2-8218-2650-2 |access-date=2022-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BATALLA DE CAJAMARCA, 16 de Noviembre de 1532 |url=https://www.batallasdehispania.com/2019/03/batalla-de-cajamarca-16-de-noviembre-de.html |access-date=2022-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-11-16 |title=La matanza en la que el minúsculo ejército de Francisco Pizarro capturó al emperador inca |url=https://www.abc.es/historia/abci-batalla-minusculo-ejercito-francisco-pizarro-capturo-prepotente-emperador-inca-201611160255_noticia.html |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=abc |language=es}}</ref> The well-armed 168 Spaniards killed thousands of barely armed Inca soldiers and captured the newly minted Inca ruler, causing a great consternation among the natives and conditioning the future course of the fight. When Huáscar was killed, the Spanish tried and convicted Atahualpa of the murder, executing him by strangulation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=La muerte de Atahualpa |url=https://elperuano.pe/noticia/81724-la-muerte-de-atahualpa |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=elperuano.pe |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2017-07-26 |title=Atahualpa, la muerte del último emperador inca |url=https://www.notimerica.com/cultura/noticia-atahualpa-muerte-ultimo-emperador-inca-20170726083204.html |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=notimerica.com}}</ref>

For a period, Pizarro maintained the ostensible authority of the [[Inca]], recognizing [[Túpac Huallpa]] as the [[Sapa Inca]] after Atahualpa's death.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vargas |first=José |title=El inca que traicionó a su hermano |url=https://elperuano.pe/noticia/79208-el-inca-que-traiciono-a-su-hermano |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=elperuano.pe |language=es}}</ref> But the conqueror's abuses made this facade too obvious. Spanish domination consolidated itself as successive indigenous rebellions were bloodily repressed. By 23 March 1534, Pizarro and the Spanish had re-founded the Inca city of Cuzco as a new Spanish colonial settlement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burns |first1=Kathryn |title=Gender and the Politics of Mestizaje: The Convent of Santa Clara in Cuzco, Peru |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article/78/1/5/145079/Gender-and-the-Politics-of-Mestizaje-The-Convent |journal=Hispanic American Historical Review |year=1998 |volume=78 |pages=5–44 |doi=10.1215/00182168-78.1.005 |access-date=27 February 2021|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Prieto |first=Carolina |title=488 años de la fundación de Cusco, la capital histórica del Imperio Inca |url=https://parlamentoandino.org/index.php/actualidad/noticias/612-488-anos-de-la-fundacion-de-cusco-la-capital-historica-del-imperio-inca |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=parlamentoandino.org |language=es-ES |archive-date=2022-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808112323/https://parlamentoandino.org/index.php/actualidad/noticias/612-488-anos-de-la-fundacion-de-cusco-la-capital-historica-del-imperio-inca |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Establishing a stable colonial government was delayed for some time by native revolts and bands of the ''[[Conquistadores]]'' (led by Pizarro and [[Diego de Almagro]]) fighting among themselves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guzmán |first=Juan Manuel Sayago |date=2017-03-22 |title=Pizarro y Almagro (I): Guerra Civil entre los conquistadores del Perú |url=https://archivoshistoria.com/pizarro-y-almagro-i-guerra-civil-entre-los-conquistadores-del-peru/ |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=Archivos de la Historia {{!}} Tu página de divulgación |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Córdoba |first=Julián |date=2016-10-06 |title=Pizarristas vs Almagristas. La Guerra Civil en Perú (I) |url=https://iberoamericasocial.com/pizarristas-vs-almagristas-la-guerra-civil-peru-i/ |access-date=2022-10-04 |language=es |archive-date=2022-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004040808/https://iberoamericasocial.com/pizarristas-vs-almagristas-la-guerra-civil-peru-i/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lavallé |first=Bernard |date=2017 |title=La rivalidad Pizarro-Almagro según la "Historia general del perù": mentalidad conquistadora vs. heroicidad literaria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44475568 |journal=Revista de Crítica Literaria Latinoamericana |volume=43 |issue=85 |pages=243–255 |jstor=44475568 |issn=0252-8843}}</ref> A long civil war developed, from which Pizarro emerged victorious at the [[Battle of Las Salinas]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=López |first=Carla |title=6 de abril: tal día como hoy en 1538 Pizarro derrota a Almagro en la batalla de las Salinas |url=https://www.infodefensa.com/texto-diario/mostrar/3526986/6-abril-dia-como-hoy-1538-francisco-pizarro-derrota-diego-almagro-batalla-salinas |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=Infodefensa - Noticias de defensa, industria, seguridad, armamento, ejércitos y tecnología de la defensa |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=García |first=Pedro |date=2011-04-06 |title=1538: Pizarro derrota a Almagro en la batalla de Las Salinas |url=https://www.libertaddigital.com/cultura/historia/almanaque-de-la-historia-de-espana/1538-pizarro-derrota-a-almagro-en-la-batalla-de-las-salinas-9405/ |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=Libertad Digital - Cultura |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cieza de León |first=Pedro |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UbAyAQAAMAAJ |title=Guerra de Las Salinas |date=1877 |publisher=Librería de la Viuda de Rico |language=es}}</ref> In 1541, Pizarro was assassinated by a faction led by [[Diego de Almagro II]] (''El Mozo''), and the stability of the original colonial regime was shaken up in the ensuing [[civil war]].

[[Image:Pizarro in Lima.JPG|thumb|left|Pizarro and his followers in Lima in 1535]]
Despite this, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Its most significant milestone was the foundation of [[Lima]] in January 1535, from which the political and administrative institutions were organized. The new rulers instituted the [[Encomiendas in Peru|''encomienda'']] system, by which the Spanish extracted tribute from the local population, part of which was forwarded to [[Seville]] in return for converting the natives to Christianity. Title to the land itself remained with the [[king of Spain]]. As governor of Peru, Pizarro used the ''encomienda'' system to grant virtually unlimited authority over groups of native Peruvians to his soldier companions, thus forming the colonial land-tenure structure. The indigenous inhabitants of Peru were now expected to raise [[Old World]] [[cattle]], [[poultry]], and crops for their landlords. Resistance was punished severely, giving rise to the "[[Black legend (Spain)|Black Legend]]".

The necessity of consolidating Spanish royal authority over these territories led to the creation of a [[Real Audiencia]] (Royal Audience).<ref name="Espana_Real">{{cite web | title=Royal Audiences | website=Goberno de España Ministerio de Cultura | url=https://www.cultura.gob.es/en/cultura/archivos/difusion/mc-difusion/bicentenarios/contexto-historico/imperio-espanol/organizacion/audiencias.html | access-date=February 12, 2024}}</ref> In 1542<ref name="Jaggi 2019 a983">{{cite web | last=Jaggi | first=Maya | title=Spain Gets a Crash Course in a Former Colony's Art | website=The New York Times | date=April 5, 2019 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/05/arts/design/peru-art-madrid-prado.html | access-date=March 6, 2024}}</ref><ref name="Gill 2024 t394">{{cite web | last=Gill | first=Nicholas | title=A culinary guide to Lima, from ceviches to saltados | website=Travel | date=January 24, 2024 | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/culinary-guide-to-lima-from-ceviches-to-saltados | access-date=March 6, 2024}}</ref> or 1543,<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1998 f319">{{cite web | title=Viceroyalty of Peru | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=July 20, 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Viceroyalty-of-Peru | access-date=March 6, 2024}}</ref> the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] (''Virreinato del Perú'') was established, with authority over most of Spanish-ruled South America.<ref name="Jaggi 2019 a983" /> [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Panama]] (after 1571) and [[Venezuela]] were split off as the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] (''Virreinato de Nueva Granada'') in 1717,<ref name=Barroso_2017"">{{cite book |last=Eissa-Barroso |first=Francisco A. |date=2017 |title=The Spanish Monarchy and the Creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717-1739): The Politics of Early Bourbon Reform in Spain and Spanish America |volume=6 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctvbqs8bk |location=Boston, Massachusetts, USA |publisher=Brill |page=1 |jstor=10.1163/j.ctvbqs8bk |isbn=978-9004-30878-7 }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1998 w995">{{cite web | title=Viceroyalty of New Granada | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=July 20, 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Viceroyalty-of-New-Granada | access-date=March 6, 2024}}</ref> and [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Paraguay]], and [[Uruguay]] were set up as the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] in 1776).<ref name="Blanchard_2020">{{cite book |last=Blanchard |first=Peter |date=2020 |title=Fearful Vassals: Urban Elite Loyalty in the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata, 1776-1810 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv191kwsg |location=Pittsburgh, PA, USA |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |page=15-42 |isbn=978-0822946199 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv191kwsg |jstor=j.ctv191kwsg }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1998 i496">{{cite web | title=Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=July 20, 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Viceroyalty-of-the-Rio-de-la-Plata | access-date=March 6, 2024}}</ref>

After Pizarro's death, there were numerous internal problems, and Spain finally sent [[Blasco Núñez Vela]] to be Peru's first viceroy in 1544. He was later killed by Pizarro's brother, [[Gonzalo Pizarro]], but a new viceroy, [[Pedro de la Gasca]], eventually managed to restore order. He captured and executed Gonzalo Pizarro.

A census taken by the last [[Quipu]]camayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo, the census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Inca. Historian [[Noble David Cook]] estimates that their population decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of [[infectious disease]]s.<ref>[[Noble David Cook]], ''Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620'', p. 114.</ref> While the attrition was not an organized attempt at [[genocide]], the results were similar. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, [[pandemic|epidemic]] [[disease]] such as [[smallpox]] (unlike the Spanish, the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]] had no immunity to the disease)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html |title=The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs |publisher=Pbs.org |access-date=2012-03-19}}</ref> was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/smallpox_01.shtml |title=Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2011-02-17 |access-date=2012-03-19}}</ref> Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns centered around a [[plaza]] with a church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca cities like Cuzco retained native masonry for the foundations of their walls. Other Inca sites, like [[Huanuco Viejo]], were abandoned for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish.

===Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1824)===
{{main|Viceroyalty of Peru}}
[[File:Colonial Peru textile.jpg|thumb|Colonial [[tapestry]], late 17th or early 18th century. It was woven by indigenous weavers for a Spanish client, incorporating then-fashionable Chinese imagery.]]
[[File:Planta de la muy yllustre ciudad de los reyes corte del reino del Peru - (Lima) LOC 2010592749.jpg|thumb|Plan of the City of Kings (Lima), 1674.]]

In 1542, the Spanish Crown created the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], which was reorganized after the arrival of Viceroy [[Francisco de Toledo]] in 1572. He put an end to the indigenous [[Neo-Inca State]] in [[Vilcabamba, Peru|Vilcabamba]] and executed [[Túpac Amaru|Tupac Amaru I]]. He also sought economic development through commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from the silver mines of [[Potosí]]. He reused the Inca ''[[Mita (Inca)|mita]]'', a forced labor program, to mobilize native communities for mining work. This organization transformed Peru into the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America.

The town of [[Lima]], founded by Pizarro on 18 January 1535 as the "Ciudad de Reyes" (City of Kings), became the seat of the new viceroyalty. It grew into a powerful city, with jurisdiction over most of Spanish South America. Precious metals passed through Lima on their way to the [[Isthmus of Panama]] and from there to [[Seville, Spain]] for the Atlantic route. For the Pacific, it passed to Mexico and disembarked from the port of Acapulco and eventually arrived at the Philippines. By the 18th century, Lima had become a distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital, seat of a university and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas. Peru was thus wealthy and highly populated. [[Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera]], governor of [[Panama]] settled [[Zamboanga City]] in the Philippines, where residents now speak a [[Chavacano|Spanish Creole]], by employing soldiers and colonists recruited from the towns of Peru.<ref>[http://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm "SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST. AUGUSTINE"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228083013/https://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm |date=2021-02-28 }} (Zamboanga City History) "He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reënforcement of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."</ref>

Nevertheless, throughout the eighteenth century, further away from Lima in the provinces, the Spanish did not have complete control. The Spanish could not govern the provinces without the help of local elite. This local elite, who governed under the title of Curaca, took pride in their Incan history. Additionally, throughout the eighteenth century, indigenous people rebelled against the Spanish. Two of the most important rebellions were that of [[Juan Santos Atahualpa]] in 1742 in the Andean jungle provinces of [[Tarma]] and [[Jauja]], which expelled the Spanish from a large area, and the Rebellion of [[Túpac Amaru II]] in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.

At the time, an economic crisis was developing due to creation of the Viceroyalties of [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]] and [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|Rio de la Plata]] (at the expense of its territory), the duty exemptions that moved the commercial center from [[Lima]] to [[Caracas]] and [[Buenos Aires]], and the decrease of the mining and textile production. This crisis proved favorable for the indigenous rebellion of Túpac Amaru II and determined the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

In 1808, Napoleon invaded the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and took the king, [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]], hostage. Later in 1812, the [[Cortes of Cádiz|Cadíz Cortes]], the national legislative assembly of Spain, promulgated a liberal [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Constitution of Cadiz]]. These events inspired emancipating ideas between the [[Criollo people|Spanish Criollo people]] throughout the Spanish America. In Peru, the Creole rebellion of [[Huánuco (Department of Peru)|Huánuco]] arose in 1812 and the rebellion of [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]] arose between 1814 and 1816. Despite these rebellions, the [[Criollo people|Criollo]] oligarchy in Peru remained mostly Spanish loyalist, which accounts for the fact that the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] became the last redoubt of the Spanish dominion in South America.

===Wars of independence (1811–1824)===
[[Image:La Independencia del Perú.jpg|thumb|right|José de San Martín's proclamation of the independence of Peru on July 28, 1821, in [[Lima]], [[Peru]]. [[Proclamación de la Independencia del Perú|Painting]] by [[Juan Lepiani]]]]
{{main|Peruvian War of Independence|Protectorate of Peru}}

Peru's movement toward independence was launched by an uprising of Spanish-American landowners and their forces, led by [[José de San Martín]] of [[Argentina]] and [[Simón Bolívar]] of [[Venezuela]]. San Martín, who had displaced the royalists of Chile after the [[Battle of Chacabuco]], and who had disembarked in [[Paracas Peninsula|Paracas]] in 1819, led the military campaign of 4,200 soldiers. The expedition, which included warships, was organized and financed by Chile which sailed from [[Valparaíso]] in August 1820.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Simon Collier|author2=William F. Sater|title=A History of Chile, 1808–1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFyfZNKxBPoC&pg=PA39|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56827-2|page=39}}</ref> San Martin proclaimed the independence of Peru in [[Lima (Department of Peru)|Lima]] on 28 July 1821, with the words "... From this moment on, Peru is free and independent, by the general will of the people and the justice of its cause that God defends. Long live the homeland! Long live freedom! Long live our independence!". San Martín received the title of "Protector of Peruvian Freedom" in August 1821 after partially liberating Peru from the Spanish.<ref name="Arana">Arana, M., 2013, ''Bolivar'', New York: Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|978-1-4391-1019-5}}</ref>{{rp|295}}

On 26 and 27 July 1822, Bolívar held the [[Guayaquil Conference]] with San Martín and attempted to decide the political fate of Peru. San Martín opted for a constitutional monarchy, whilst Bolivar (Head of the Northern Expedition) favored a republic. Nonetheless, they both followed the notion that it was to be independent of Spain. Following the interview, San Martin abandoned Peru on 22 September 1822 and left the whole command of the independence movement to Simon Bolivar. 
[[File:Batalla de Junín.jpg|thumb|Battle of Junín, 6 August 1824]]

The Peruvian congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824, which allowed him to reorganize the political and military administration completely. Assisted by general [[Antonio José de Sucre]], Bolívar decisively defeated the Spanish [[cavalry]] at the [[Battle of Junín]] on 6 August 1824. Sucre destroyed the still numerically superior remnants of the Spanish forces at [[Battle of Ayacucho|Ayacucho]] on 9 December 1824. The war would not end until the last royalist holdouts surrendered the [[Real Felipe Fortress]] in 1826.

The victory brought about political independence, but there remained indigenous and [[mestizo]] supporters of the monarchy and in [[Huanta Province]], they rebelled in 1825–28, which is known as ''the war of the punas'' or the [[Iquicha War of 1825–1828|Huanta Rebellion]].<ref>Ceclia Méndez, ''The Plebeian Republic: The Huanta Rebellion and the Making of the Peruvian State, 1820–1850''. Durham: Duke University Press 2005.</ref><ref>Patrick Husson, ''De la Guerra a la Rebelión (Huanta Siglo XIX). Cuzco: Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos Bartolomé de las Casas 1992.''</ref>

Spain made futile attempts to regain its former colonies, such as the [[Battle of Callao]] (1866), and only in 1879 finally recognized Peruvian independence.