Editing History of Islam (section)

==Rashidun Caliphate==
{{Main|Rashidun Caliphate}}
{{Further|Rashidun|Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman}}
{{See also|Canonization of Islamic scripture|Political aspects of Islam}}
[[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb|upright|250px|Empire of the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rāshidūn Caliphate]] at its peak under the third ''[[Rashidun|rāshidūn]]'' caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan|ʿUthmān]] (654 CE) {{legend|#008000|Strongholds of the Rāshidūn Caliphate}}]]

After the [[death of Muhammad]] in 632 CE, his community needed to appoint a new leader, giving rise to the title of ''[[caliph]]'' ({{langx|ar|خَليفة|translit=khalīfa|lit=successor}}).<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Lewis1995a"/><ref name="Polk 2018"/> Thus, the subsequent Islamic empires were known as "[[caliphate]]s",<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Lewis1995a"/><ref name="Pakatchi-Ahmadi 2017">{{cite encyclopedia|author1-last=Pakatchi|author1-first=Ahmad|author2-last=Ahmadi|author2-first=Abuzar|year=2017|title=Caliphate|translator-last=Asatryan|translator-first=Mushegh|editor1-last=Madelung|editor1-first=Wilferd|editor2-last=Daftary|editor2-first=Farhad|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica|location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_05000066|issn=1875-9823}}</ref> and a series of four caliphs governed the early Islamic empire: [[Abu Bakr|Abū Bakr]] (632–634), [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb]] (Umar І, 634–644), [[Uthman ibn Affan|ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān]] (644–656), and [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]] (656–661). These leaders are known as the ''[[Rashidun|rāshidūn]]'' ("rightly-guided") caliphs in [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī Islam]].<ref name="Lewis1995a"/> They oversaw the initial phase of the [[early Muslim conquests]], advancing through [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]], [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|the Levant]], [[Muslim invasion of Egypt|Egypt]], and [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|North Africa]].<ref name="Lewis1995a"/>

Alongside the growth of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], the major political development within early Islam in this period was the sectarian split and political divide between [[Kharijites|Kharijite]], [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī]], and [[Shia Islam|Shīʿa]] [[Muslims]]; this had its roots in a dispute over the succession for the role of caliph.<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Izutsu 2006"/> Sunnīs believed the caliph was elective and any Muslim from the Arab clan of [[Quraysh]], the tribe of Muhammad, might serve as one.<ref name="Lewis1995b"/> Shīʿītes, on the other hand, believed the title of caliph should be hereditary in the [[Ahl al-Bayt|bloodline of Muhammad]],<ref name="jaarel 2015">{{cite journal|last=Foody|first=Kathleen|date=September 2015|title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran|editor-last=Jain|editor-first=Andrea R.|journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]]|volume=83|issue=3|pages=599–623|doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029|doi-access=free|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] on behalf of the [[American Academy of Religion]]|eissn=1477-4585|issn=0002-7189|jstor=24488178|lccn=sc76000837|oclc=1479270|quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, [[Muhammad]] not only designated [[Ali|ʿAlī]] as his friend, but appointed him as his [[Succession to Muhammad|successor]]—as the "lord" or "master" of the new [[Ummah|Muslim community]]. ʿAlī and [[Family tree of Ali|his descendants]] would become known as [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|the Imams]], divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted [[Tafsir|special insight into the Qurʾanic text]]. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over [[Islamic holy books|Islamic texts]] and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the [[Occultation (Islam)|disappearance]] of the [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|twelfth and final Imam]] in the ninth century.}}</ref> and thus all the caliphs, with the exceptions of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]] and his firstborn son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Ḥasan]], were actually illegitimate [[usurper]]s.<ref name="Lewis1995b"/> However, the Sunnī sect emerged as triumphant in most regions of the [[Muslim world]], with the exceptions of [[Iran]] and [[Oman]]. [[Companions of the Prophet|Muhammad's closest companions]] (''ṣaḥāba''), the four "[[Rashidun|rightly-guided]]" caliphs who succeeded him, continued to expand the Islamic empire to encompass [[Siege of Jerusalem (636–637)|Jerusalem]], [[Siege of Ctesiphon (637)|Ctesiphon]], and [[Muslim invasion of Damascus|Damascus]], and sending Arab Muslim armies as far as the [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Sindh region]].<ref>[http://alcor.concordia.ca/~shannon/201Lec02images_files/image004.jpg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050930020401/http://alcor.concordia.ca/~shannon/201Lec02images_files/image004.jpg|date=30 September 2005}}</ref> The early Islamic empire stretched from [[al-Andalus]] (Muslim Iberia) to the [[Muslim invasion of India|Punjab region]] under the reign of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad dynasty]].

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  from: 630 till: 632  color:lightgrey shift:(-17,-3) text:[[Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca|Mecca]]
  from: 632 till: 633  color:lightgrey shift:(7,-3) text:[[Ridda wars]]
  from: 633 till: 656  color:lightgrey shift:(7,-3) text:[[Rashidun Caliphate|Rāshidūn Campaigns]]
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  from: 661 till: 666  color:lightgrey shift:(7,-3) text:[[Umayyad accession]]
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  from: 644 till: 656  color:age text:[[Uthman ibn Affan|ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān]]
  from: 656 till: 661  color:era text:[[Ali ibn Abi Talib|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]]
  from: 661 till: 666  color:age text:[[Muawiyah I|Muʿāwiya I]]
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After Muhammad's death, [[Abu Bakr|Abū Bakr]], one of his closest associates, was chosen as the first [[caliph]] ("successor"). Although the office of caliph retained an aura of religious authority, it laid no claim to prophecy.<ref name="Lewis1995a"/><ref name="Hourani22"/> A number of [[Tribes of Arabia|tribal Arab leaders]] refused to extend the agreements made with Muhammad to Abū Bakr, ceasing payments of the alms levy and in some cases claiming to be prophets in their own right.<ref name="Hourani22">{{cite book|author=Albert Hourani|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA15|year=2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=22–23|isbn=978-0-674-01017-8}}</ref> Abū Bakr asserted his authority in a successful military campaign known as the [[Ridda wars]], whose momentum was carried into the lands of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] empires.<ref>"The immediate outcome of the Muslim victories was turmoil. Medina's victories led allied tribes to attack the non-aligned to compensate for their own losses. The pressure drove tribes [...] across the imperial frontiers. The Bakr tribe, which had defeated a Persian detachment in 606, joined forces with the Muslims and led them on a raid in southern Iraq [...] A similar spilling over of tribal raiding occurred on the Syrian frontiers. Abu Bakr encouraged these movements [...] What began as inter-tribal skirmishing to consolidate a political confederation in Arabia ended as a full-scale war against the two empires."{{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}</ref> By the end of the reign of the second caliph [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb]], the Arab Muslim armies, whose battle-hardened ranks were now swelled by the defeated rebels<ref>"In dealing with captured leaders Abu Bakr showed great clemency, and many became active supporters of the cause of Islam." W.&nbsp;Montgomery Watt, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed.'', "Abu Bakr", vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;110. "Umar's subsequent decision (reversing the exclusionary policy of Abu Bakr) to allow those tribes which had rebelled during the course of the Ridda wars and been subdued to participate in the expanding incursions into and attacks on the Fertile Crescent [...] incorporated the defeated Arabs into the polity as Muslims." {{Harvtxt|Berkey|2003|p=71}}</ref> and former imperial auxiliary troops,<ref>[N]on-Muslim sources allow us to perceive an additional advantage, namely, that Arabs had been serving in the armies of Byzantium and Persia long before Islam; they had acquired valuable training in the weaponry and military tactics of the empires and had become to some degree acculturated to their ways. In fact, these sources hint that we should view many in Muhammad's west Arabian coalition, its settled members as well as its nomads, not so much as outsiders seeking to despoil the empires but as insiders trying to grab a share of the wealth of their imperial masters.{{Harvtxt|Hoyland|2014|p=227}}</ref> [[Arab–Byzantine wars|invaded the eastern Byzantine provinces of Syria and Egypt]], while [[Muslim conquest of Persia|the Sasanids lost their western territories]], with the rest of Persia to follow soon afterwards.<ref name="Hourani22"/>
[[File:First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid style]] coins during the Rashidun period,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author1-last=Album|author1-first=Stephen|author2-last=Bates|author2-first=Michael L.|author3-last=Floor|author3-first=Willem|author3-link=Willem Floor|title=COINS AND COINAGE|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-|volume=VI/1|pages=14–41|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|location=[[New York City|New York]]|date=30 December 2012|orig-date=15 December 1992|doi=10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7783|doi-access=free|issn=2330-4804|access-date=23 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517020427/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-|archive-date=17 May 2015|url-status=live|quote=As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the ''drahms'' of the Sasanian emperors, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like ''besmellāh'' in the margins. [...] In the year 79/698 reformed Islamic dirhams with inscriptions and no images replaced the Sasanian types at nearly all mints. During this transitional period in the 690s specifically Muslim inscriptions appeared on the coins for the first time; previously Allāh (God) had been mentioned but not the prophet Moḥammad, and there had been no reference to any Islamic doctrines. Owing to civil unrest (e.g., the revolt of ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. Ašʿaṯ, q.v., against Ḥajjāj in 81/701), coins of Sasanian type continued to be issued at certain mints in Fārs, Kermān, and Sīstān, but by 84/703 these mints had either been closed down or converted to production of the new dirhams. The latest known Arab-Sasanian coin, an extraordinary issue, is dated 85/704-05, though some mints in the east, still outside Muslim control, continued producing imitation Arab-Sasanian types for perhaps another century.}}</ref> similar designs were minted in the names of important leaders such as [[Muawiyah I]] and [[Ibn Zubayr]].  ([[Crescent and star (symbol)|crescent-star]], [[fire altar]], depictions of the last Sasanian emperor [[Khosrow II]], Arabic ''[[Basmala|bismillāh]]'' in margin)]]

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb improved the administration of the fledgling Islamic empire, ordering improvement of irrigation networks, and playing a role in foundation of cities like [[Basra]]. To be close to the poor, he lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, ʿUmar established the ''[[Bayt al-mal]]'',<ref>{{cite book|author=Abdul Basit Ahmad|title=Umar bin Al Khattab – The Second Caliph of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWp8aeuqKaYC&pg=PT43|publisher=Darussalam|isbn=978-9960-861-08-1|page=43|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Khalid Muhammad Khalid|author2=Muhammad Khali Khalid|title=Men Around the Messenger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA20|date=2005|publisher=The Other Press|isbn=978-983-9154-73-3|page=20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Maulana Muhammad Ali|title=The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQxYnAykK6sC&pg=PT132|date=8 August 2011|publisher=eBookIt.com|isbn=978-1-934271-22-3|page=132}}</ref> a welfare institution for the Muslim and [[Kafir|Non-Muslim]] poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The ''Bayt al-mal'' ran for hundreds of years under the Rāshidūn Caliphate in the 7th century CE and continued through the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad period]] and well into the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid era]]. ʿUmar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly.<ref>{{cite book|author=Muhammad Al-Buraey|title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA254|year=1985|publisher=KPI|isbn=978-0-7103-0333-2|page=254}}</ref><ref>''The challenge of Islamic renaissance'' by Syed Abdul Quddus</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Muhammad Al-Buraey|title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA252|year=1985|publisher=KPI|isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1|page=252}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Ahmed Akgündüz|author2=Said Öztürk|title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnT_zhqEe5cC&pg=PA539|date=1 January 2011|publisher=IUR Press|isbn=978-90-90-26108-9|page=539}}</ref> When he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.<ref name="Brill Archive">{{cite book|author1=Sami Ayad Hanna|author2=George H. Gardner|title=Arab Socialism. &#91;al-Ishtirakīyah Al-ʻArabīyah&#93;: A Documentary Survey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA271|year=1969|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=271–|id=GGKEY:EDBBNXAKPQ2}}</ref> The expansion was partially halted between 638 and 639 CE during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and the Levant, respectively, but by the end of ʿUmar's reign, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and much of Persia were incorporated into the early Islamic empire.

Local populations of [[Jews]] and [[Arab Christians|indigenous Christians]], who lived as religious minorities and were forced to pay the ''[[jizya]]'' tax under the Muslim rule in order to finance the wars with Byzantines and Sasanids, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2000|p=38}}</ref><ref>Hofmann (2007), p. 86</ref> As new areas were conquered, they also benefited from free trade with other areas of the growing Islamic empire, where, to encourage commerce, taxes were applied to wealth rather than trade.<ref>''Islam: An Illustrated History'' by Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay p. 40</ref> The Muslims paid ''[[zakat]]'' on their wealth for the benefit of the poor. Since the [[Constitution of Medina]], drafted by the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws and had their own judges.<ref>{{cite journal|author=R. B. Serjeant|title=Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|year=1978|volume=41|pages=1–42|s2cid=161485671}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=R. B. Serjeant|title=The Constitution of Medina|journal=Islamic Quarterly|volume=8|year=1964|page=4}}</ref>

In 639 CE, ʿUmar appointed [[Muawiyah I|Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan]] as the governor of [[Muslim invasion of Syria|Syria]] after the previous governor died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC|date=15 October 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|page=61}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Rahman|1999|p=40}}</ref> To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the [[Arab–Byzantine wars]], in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, with ships crewed by [[Monophysitism|Monophysite Christians]], [[Copts|Egyptian Coptic Christians]], and [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church|Jacobite Syrian Christians]] sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the [[Battle of the Masts]] in 655 CE, opening up the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to Muslim ships.<ref>{{cite book|author=Archibald Ross Lewis|title=European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIRDbARyWIC&pg=PA24|year=1985|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-32082-7|page=24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Leonard Michael Kroll|title=History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAPc3mYwZpIC&pg=PA123|date=2005|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4634-5730-3|page=123}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Timothy E. Gregory|title=A History of Byzantium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIFJiOCSYc8C&pg=PA183|date=26 August 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5997-8|page=183}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Mark Weston|title=Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA61|date=28 July 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-18257-4|page=61}}</ref>

[[File:Byzantiumby650AD.svg|thumb|270px|upright|left|Eastern territories of the [[Byzantine Empire]] invaded by the [[Early Muslim conquests|Arab Muslims]] during the [[Arab–Byzantine wars]] (650 CE)]]
Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because ʿUmar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury, moving away from the worship of God, accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.<ref name="Brill Archive"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Khalid Muhammad Khalid|author2=Muhammad Khali Khalid|title=Men Around the Messenger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA117|date=February 2005|publisher=The Other Press|isbn=978-983-9154-73-3|page=117}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=P. M. Holt|author2=Peter Malcolm Holt|author3=Ann K. S. Lambton|author4=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfQWT_esc5cC&pg=PA605|date=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29138-5|page=605}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Maulana Muhammad Ali|title=The Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=flg-UX6fOdkC&pg=PT101|date=9 August 2011|publisher=eBookIt.com|isbn=978-1-934271-25-4|page=101}}</ref> Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the local populations which could remain autonomous. Some of these encampments later grew into cities like [[Basra]] and [[Kufa]] in [[Iraq]] and [[Fustat]] in Egypt.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Rahman|1999|p=37}}</ref>

When ʿUmar was assassinated in 644 CE, [[Uthman ibn Affan|ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān]], second cousin and twice son-in-law of Muhammad, became the third caliph. As the Arabic language is written without vowels, speakers of [[Varieties of Arabic|different Arabic dialects]] and other languages recited the Quran with phonetic variations that could alter the meaning of the text. When ʿUthmān became aware of this, he ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the [[History of the Quran|compilation of the Quran]] was finished some time between 650 and 656 CE, and copies were sent out to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire.<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin'', New Series 50 (1): 3.</ref> After Muhammad's death, the old tribal differences between the [[Arabs]] started to resurface. Following the [[Roman–Persian wars]] and the [[Byzantine-Sasanian wars]], deep-rooted differences between [[Muslim invasion of Iraq|Iraq]] (formerly under the [[Sasanian Empire]]) and [[Muslim invasion of Syria|Syria]] (formerly under the [[Byzantine Empire]]) also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic empire to be in their area.<ref>''Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War'' by Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi p. 32</ref>

As ʿUthmān became very old, [[Marwan I]], a relative of Muawiyah slipped into the vacuum, becoming his secretary and slowly assuming more control. When ʿUthmān was assassinated in 656 CE, [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]], cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, and Marwan I demanded arrest of the culprits. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict, which resulted in the [[First Fitna|first Muslim civil war]] (the "First Fitna"). ʿAlī was assassinated by the [[Kharijites]] in 661 CE. Six months later, ʿAlī's firstborn son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Ḥasan]] made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I, in the interest of peace. In the [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty]], Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī handed over power to Muawiyah I on the condition that he would be just to the people and not establish a dynasty after his death.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_3_49.php|title=Sahih Bukhari: Book of "Peacemaking"|first=Sahih|last=Bukhari}}</ref> Muawiyah I subsequently broke the conditions of the agreement and established the [[Umayyad dynasty]], with a capital in [[Damascus]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|pp=67–72}}</ref> [[Husayn ibn Ali|Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī]], by then Muhammad's only surviving grandson, refused to swear allegiance to the Umayyads; he was killed in the [[Battle of Karbala]] the same year, in an event still mourned by [[Shia Islam|Shīʿa Muslims]] on the [[Day of Ashura]]. Political unrest called the [[Second Fitna|second Muslim civil war]] (the "Second Fitna") continued, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah I to [[Rhodes]], [[Crete]], [[Kabul]], [[Bukhara]], and [[Samarkand]], and expanded into [[North Africa]]. In 664 CE, Arab Muslim armies conquered [[Kabul]],<ref>Roberts, J: ''History of the World''. Penguin, 1994.</ref> and in 665 CE pushed further into the [[Maghreb]].<ref>Dermenghem, E. (1958). ''Muhammad and the Islamic tradition''. New York: Harper Brothers. p. 183.</ref>